Strands of the curriculum

Presentation of content

The topics to be explored in geography are presented in the strands of the curriculum. The strand units outline the knowledge to be acquired by pupils and they provide the context within which children will develop geographical skills and concepts.

How are the strands arranged?

The strands have been chosen to help ensure that the child experiences a broadly based geography programme. The strands, which remain the same at all levels in the curriculum, reflect three major areas of geographical investigation:

• human geography (Human environments)
• physical geography (Natural environments)
• environmental issues (Environmental awareness and care).

The units within each strand have been designed to provide flexibility for schools and teachers in the planning of geography, while at the same time ensuring that children experience a wide range of geographical topics.

The range of features, processes and environments to be explored and the depth of treatment expected in each strand grows from level to level in the school. This development is reflected in the increasing differentiation of strand units for children as they progress within the school (compare, for example, the titles of strand units for infant classes with those for fifth and sixth classes) and it may also be seen in the growing sophistication of the geographical themes outlined in the units for the middle and senior classes (see table overleaf).

Within the strand units, it is not expected that children should complete each objective or suggested activity; rather teachers and schools will select from the content objectives and exemplars outlined.

The contexts for geographical study

A further feature of the organisation of the strands and strand units is the growing range of contexts which children will explore. It is an important principle of the geography curriculum (and of the other SESE curricula) that concepts, knowledge and skills should be thoroughly explored in local contexts at all levels, with extension to regional, national and international contexts.

The extent of the locality with which the child will become familiar will increase as the child grows older. For children in infant classes and first and second classes the local area around the school and, if possible, the children's homes will provide the context for much geographical work. In the middle classes the locality will probably include the area in which most of the children's homes are located and the areas in which they might shop and play. Senior classes might study a large urban or suburban area, or a county.

This emphasis on local studies will be complemented by the use of topics with a national or international dimension. In infant classes and in first and second classes units such as 'Homes' which willconcentrate on the features of the children's dwelling places can be enriched by comparisons with homes in other areas in Ireland and abroad. Studies of the foods and clothes we use, places visited on holidays and news from relatives living in other places will also help to develop the child's awareness of peoples and environments beyond the locality. The programme for middle and senior classes provides for a more systematic treatment of wider environments including those in Irish, European and non-European contexts.

Although the division of the curriculum into three strands provides a convenient format in which geographical content may be presented, it should be noted that the strands are not discrete sections. Few physical features or landscapes are entirely free of human interference and within human or built environments many natural processes may be observed. Many of the objectives outlined in the third strand, Environmental awareness and care, will arise naturally as children study and learn about topics in the other two strands, Human environments and Natural environments.

Human environments

This strand is concerned with the peoples who live in different environments, their activities and the environmental features which they have created. Major themes within this strand include:

• peoples and communities, their lifestyles, social patterns and cultures, their inter-relationships and interdependences
• the inter-relationships of people and the natural environment
• the places in which people live: the homes, buildings and other features which people erect in the environment, either in single locations or in settlements such as villages or towns
• the way of life of people and their economic activities
• the links people and places have with other areas: the journeys people make from place to place and the way people communicate with each other.

For younger children

In infant classes and in first and second classes, children will become increasingly aware of themselves as members of the family and of the school and local community. The home, school and other familiar places will provide a variety of opportunities for investigation and learning. Features may be recognised and described; materials used in construction collected and investigated; and the relationship of buildings to the streets, roads, hills, trees or other elements of the landscape noted. The discussion of journeys in the area and beyond will help the child's growing locational awareness. The work of a range of people in the locality and their places of work may be discussed. Stories about local characters and those from other parts of Ireland and beyond will encourage comparisons. These should include examples where the interrelationships and interdependences of people can be seen, for example the farmer who grows food for us or the postal workers who help us to communicate with distant relatives.

For older children

In third and fourth classes and in fifth and sixth classes the curriculum provides for a more systematic study of the themes of human geography in a number of contexts.

By studying people and places in these four contexts, children will have opportunities to explore a number of common themes in a range of contrasting circumstances. This has the advantage of allowing a comprehensive treatment of the themes while offering considerable flexibility to schools and teachers. Moreover, while the themes remain common in all of the places studied, useful contrasts and similarities may be identified by the pupils. Many differences between Ireland and other countries will be obvious but it is just as important to emphasise similarities such as common problems and the shared experiences of people in various parts of the world.

The unit 'People and other lands' in third and fourth classes and fifth and sixth classes reflects this. Many of the aspects of people's lives that are suggested in the content can be taught as themes with local, national and international dimensions. For example, a topic such as 'Foods and farming' might include work on food supply in the locality, in Ireland and in a number of contrasting areas throughout the world. One of the most important aims of these explorations, and of those on development issues that are included in fifth and sixth classes, should be the fostering of a sense of shared global citizenship and an understanding and appreciation of human diversity and interdependence.

A further aspect of the strand Human environments is that children should become familiar with some of the features of the urban centres in their county and region, in some of the major cities of Ireland and the principal cities of the European Union. This work is outlined in the unit 'County, regional and national centres.' However, it should be noted that mere rote memorisation of the names of cities, towns and countries does not enhance children's geographical understanding.

Natural environments: physical geography

The range of physical geography

This strand provides for the study of landscapes and aspects of environments which have been formed by natural processes.

Broadly speaking, content in this strand introduces children to three areas of learning:

• the study of natural landscape features such as hills, mountains, rivers, headlands, beaches, forests, peatlands, etc. (a study usually referred to as geomorphology)
• the study of weather and climate (meteorology)
• the study of the Earth's relationship to other bodies in the solar system and space (astronomy).

Landscape

The natural landscape features which occur in an area (i.e. its topography) are crucial elements in forming the character of a place. Geography should enable the child to explore and recognise these features in his/her locality and in other locations with an increasing confidence and accuracy, to understand how some of these features have occurred and to appreciate how they may change over time. The curriculum lays considerable emphasis on the exploration of limited areas and small-scale features in the early years. As the child grows older, the range of areas and their extent will increase and as more and more instances of a feature are encountered the child's concept of it will be refined.

In the infant classes, and in first and second classes, explorations and investigations in the local area will enable children to become familiar with common elements of the environment. The children should come to differentiate features such as slopes and flat places; water in puddles, ponds or rivers; materials such as wood, stones, sand and mud; and habitats such as trees, wild grass, hedgerows, river banks or seashore. In all of these areas opportunities will exist for the collection, sorting and naming of a range of natural materials, and children can also be introduced to the flora and fauna of the area through complementary studies in science. This work will involve considerable language development as the child names different features and items, classifies them and describes his/her observations and experiences.

In third and fourth classes, children should become familiar with some of the main natural features in a range of contexts, ideally the same areas as those used in the exploration of human environments. Through exploring the landscape and examining simple largescale maps and photographs children should begin to describe how some of the features are related to each other. For example, children might tell about or draw the forest near the lake, the stream flowing down the hill, or the beach at the bottom of the rocks.

Children in third and fourth classes should also begin to relate the physical features of their own locality to those in the wider county and Ireland. For example, a local stream may be a tributary of a major river or the hills in the distance may be part of a larger range. Studies of localities beyond Ireland will also provide opportunities for the recognition and investigation of natural features.

By the time children are in fifth and sixth classes they should have developed a simple understanding of the main topographical features of their locality. Simple experiments, observation in the environment and the discussion of natural occurrences in the media can introduce children to some of the processes which form natural features.

A feature of this work in both the middle and senior classes should be the recognition of the inter-relationships between the natural features, flora and fauna of an area and the people who inhabit it and the ways people have changed or can change its character. This can help foster the child's aesthetic awareness and will complement studies in the visual arts.

Weather and climate

Weather is an aspect of the natural environment that impacts powerfully on the life of the child, and the weather patterns which form the climate of a region help to define the character of a place. The exploration and recording of weather patterns in the local environment and the comparison of these patterns with those of other areas help to form an important part of the child's understanding of the world and contribute to his/her development of a sense of place.

In infant classes discussions about the weather and its effect on the lives of people, plants and animals form a natural part of informal conversations. Simple pictorial recording of weather may be undertaken and in first and second classes seasonal patterns will be noted and links between observationswill be made (for example, clouds with rain, cold weather with ice). This should lead children to begin to make simple predictions such as 'forecasting' that dark clouds may bring rain. Comparisons may also be made with weather experienced by people in other countries.

Children in third and fourth classes and in fifth and sixth classes will be enabled to refine their observations, measurement and recording of weather. The curriculum suggests the observation of details of some of the major cloud types and that they might be complemented by the use of simple equipment such as a thermometer and an improvised or purchased rain-gauge and weather vane. In fifth and sixth classes a domestic barometer might also be used. Children's mathematical and graphical skills will be developed in analysing the data collected, in presenting it in more effective ways and in making comparisons between patterns observed during different seasons, locally, in Ireland generally and in other parts of the world. The effect of weather and climate on the lives of animals, plants and humans in an increasingly wide range of areas will also form part of this strand.

Planet Earth in space

The study of the Earth, its weather and seasons leads naturally to the exploration of the setting of the Earth in the solar system and in space. In infant classes and first and second classes children will develop an awareness of the sun, moon and stars and will associate them with day and night. In third and fourth classes they should explore and record the position of the sun and the relative lengths of shadows in the morning, mid-day and evening, and come to associate directions with the position of the sun. The use of satellite images, video recordings, globes, charts and models will help children in fifth and sixth classes to understand the relative size, position and relationship of the Earth, sun and other bodies in the solar system and can awaken an interest in other heavenly bodies.

Environmental awareness and care

This strand encapsulates many of the attitudinal aims of the geography curriculum. It seeks to emphasise that children's experience of geography should

• lead to an informed appreciation of the environments that they encounter
• develop an awareness of the interdependence of natural environments and humans in local, national and global contexts
• develop an understanding of the impact of change and development
• encourage positive environmental action and a commitment to sustainable lifestyles
• instil a sense of personal and community responsibility as custodians of the Earth.

An appreciation of environments, both natural and human, is best fostered by a thorough knowledge of their distinguishing features and characteristics. By visiting and exploring different environmental features and in recording and analysing their observations children will come to appreciate them more fully and will become sensitive to the impact which change may bring.

In infants and in first and second classes the unit 'Caring for my locality' is firmly rooted in the child's awareness of his/her own environment, the natural features to be found there and the habitats which these provide for plants and animals. The unit also encourages the identification of simple yet important opportunities for individuals and groups to care for the immediate surroundings, for example in keeping the classroom tidy, in keeping the school and yard clean, in caring for plants and animals.

In third and fourth classes and in fifth and sixth classes the strand provides for the study of a range of environments in Ireland and other parts of the world and an examination of the interdependences and systems which are found there. People's relationships with natural and human environments are inter-linked with their health and lifestyles and with their economic, social and cultural activities. Many aspects of human activity may have a major impact on environments, often in quite unforeseen ways. Economic development is usually welcome when it enhances people's standard of living but its visual impact on the area and its effect on the health of people and on flora and fauna may be less desirable.

The issues that arise in the discussion of these topics are rarely simple or straightforward. In both the middle and senior classes the strand provides for the examination of the causes of and possible solutions to a local, national or global environmental issue. An important concern of the strand is that children should be enabled to examine such issues in an informed, critical way and they should be encouraged to contribute to their resolution whenever and wherever this is feasible.