Higher Level Syllabus

MOTION

1. Linear motion

2. Vectors and Scalars

FORCES

1. Newton's laws of motion

2. Conservation of momentum

3. Circular motion

4. Gravity

5. Density and pressure

6. Moments

7. Conditions for equilibrium

8. Simple harmonic
motion (SHM) and
Hooke's law

ENERGY

1. Work
2. Energy
3. Power

Units of mass, length and time - definition of units not required.

Displacement, velocity, acceleration: definitions and units.
Derivation.

Equations of motion.

Distinction between vector and scalar quantities.

Composition of perpendicular vectors.

Resolution of co-planar vectors.

Statement of the three laws.

Force and momentum, definitions and units. Vector nature of forces to be stressed.

F = ma as a special case of Newton's second law.

Friction: a force opposing motion.

Principle of conservation of momentum.

Centripetal force required to maintain uniform motion in a circle.
Definition of angular velocity ?.
Derivation of v = r?
Use of a = r? 2, F = m r? 2

Newton's law of universal gravitation.

F = Gm₁m₂ ÷ d²

Weight = mg

Variation of g, and hence W, with distance from centre of Earth (effect of centripetal acceleration not required).
Value of acceleration due to gravity on other bodies in space, e.g. Moon.
Circular satellite orbits - derivation of the relationship between the period, the mass of the central body and the radius of the orbit.

Definitions and units.
Pressure in liquids and gases. Boyle's law.
Archimedes' principle. Law of flotation.

Definition.
Levers.
Couple.

The sum of the forces in any direction equals the sum of the forces in the opposite direction.
The sum of the moments about any point is zero.

Hooke's law: restoring force ?
displacement.
F = - ks
ma = - ks
a = - ks /m = - ?2s
Systems that obey Hooke's law
e.g. simple pendulum, execute
simple harmonic motion:
T = 2p /?

Definition and unit.

Energy as the ability to do work.
Different forms of energy.
E_P = mgh E_k = ½mv²
Mass as a form of energy
E = mc²

Conversions from one form of energy to another.
Principle of conservation of energy.

Power as the rate of doing work or rate of energy conversion.
Unit.

Percentage efficiency = Power output x 100 ÷ Power input

Measurement of velocity and acceleration, using any suitable apparatus. Use of distance-time, velocity-time graphs.

Measurement of g.

Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration of the laws using air track or tickertape timer or powder track timer, etc.

Appropriate calculations.

Find resultants using newton balances or pulleys.

Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration by any one suitable method.

Appropriate calculations (problems involving change of mass need not be considered).

Demonstration of circular motion.
Appropriate calculations.

Appropriate calculations.

Compare gravitational forces between Earth and Sun and between Earth and Moon.

Calculation of weight on different planets.

Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration of atmospheric pressure, e.g. collapsing-can experiment. Appropriate calculations. Demonstration only. Calculations not required.

Simple experiments with a number of weights. Appropriate calculations. (Only problems involving co-planar parallel forces need be considered.)

Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration of SHM, e.g.
swinging pendulum or oscillating
magnet.
Appropriate calculations.

Simple experiments. Appropriate calculations involving force and displacement in the same direction only.

Demonstrations of different energy conversions.
Appropriate calculations.

Estimation of average power developed by

• person running upstairs
• person repeatedly lifting weights, etc.

Appropriate calculations.

Sports, e.g. athletics.

Vector nature of physical quantities: everyday examples.

Applications

• seat belts
• rocket travel.

Sports, all ball games.

Importance of friction in

everyday experience, e.g. walking, use of lubricants, etc.

Collisions (ball games), acceleration of spacecraft, jet aircraft.

Solar system.

"Weightlessness" and artificial gravity.

Presence of atmosphere.

Satellites and communications.

Atmospheric pressure and weather.

The "bends" in diving, etc.

Hydrometers.

Torque, e.g. taps, doors.

Handlebars on bicycles.

Reference to moving-coil meters and simple motor.

Static and dynamic equilibrium.

Everyday examples.

Lifts, escalators.

Sources of energy: renewable and non-renewable.

Mass transformed to other forms of energy in the Sun.

Efficient use of energy in the home.

Power of devices, e.g. light bulbs, motors, etc.

1. Concept of
temperature

2. Thermometric
properties

3. Thermometers

Measure of hotness or coldness of a body.
The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (definition of unit in terms of the triple point of water not required).
Celsius scale is the practical temperature scale

t /ºC = T /K - 273.15

A physical property that changes measurably with temperature.

Thermometers measure temperature.
Two thermometers do not necessarily give the same reading at the same temperature.
The need for standard thermometers - use any commercial laboratory thermometer as school standard.

• Demonstration of some thermometric properties:
• length of liquid column, e.g. length of mercury column
• emf of thermocouple
• resistance
• pressure of a gas at constant volume
• volume of a gas at constant pressure
• colour.

Graduate two thermometers at ice and steam points. Compare values obtained for an unknown temperature, using a straight-line graph between reference points.

Practical thermometers, e.g.

• clinical thermometer,
• oven thermometers,
• boiler thermometers,
• temperature gauge in a car.

1. Properties of waves

2. Wave phenomena

3. Doppler effect

Longitudinal and transverse waves:
frequency, amplitude, wavelength, velocity.

Relationship c = f ?
Reflection.
Refraction.
Diffraction.
Interference.
Polarisation.

Stationary waves; relationship between inter-node distance and wavelength.
Diffraction effects

• at an obstacle
• at a slit

with reference to significance of the wavelength.

Qualitative treatment.
Simple quantitative treatment for
moving source and stationary
observer.

Appropriate calculations.

Simple demonstrations using
slinky, ripple tank, microwaves, or
other suitable method.

Sound from a moving source.
Appropriate calculations without deriving formula.

Everyday examples, e.g.

• radio waves
• waves at sea
• seismic waves.

Red shift of stars.
Speed traps.

1. Wave nature of sound

2. Characteristics of notes

3. Resonance

4. Vibrations in strings and pipes

5. Sound intensity level

Reflection, refraction, diffraction, interference.

Speed of sound in various media.

Amplitude and loudness, frequency and pitch, quality and overtones.
Frequency limits of audibility.

Natural frequency. Fundamental frequency.
Definition of resonance, and examples.

Stationary waves in strings and pipes. Relationship between frequency and length.
Harmonics in strings and pipes.
f = 1/2l T/µ
for a stretched string.

Sound intensity: definition and unit.
Threshold of hearing and frequency response of the ear.
Sound intensity level, measured in decibels. Doubling the sound
intensity increases the sound intensity level by 3 dB
The dB(A) scale is used because it is adapted to the ear's frequency response.

Demonstration of interference, e.g. two loudspeakers and a signal generator.

Demonstration that sound requires a medium.

Demonstration using tuning forks or other suitable method.

Use string and wind instruments, e.g. guitar, tin whistle.

Appropriate calculations.

Use of sound-level meter.

Acoustics.

Reduction of noise using destructive interference. Noise pollution.

Dog whistle.

Vocal cords (folds).

String section and woodwind section in orchestras.

Examples of sound intensity level.
Hearing impairment.
Ear protection in industry, etc.

REFLECTION

1. Laws of reflection

2. Mirrors

REFRACTION

1. Laws of refraction

2. Total internal
reflection

3. Lenses

WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT

1. Diffraction and interference

2. Light as a transverse wave motion

3. Dispersion

4. Colours

5. Electromagnetic spectrum

6. The spectrometer

Images formed by plane and spherical mirrors.
Knowledge that
1÷ f= 1÷u + 1÷y and
m = y÷u

Refractive index.

Refractive index in terms of relative speeds.

Critical angle.
Relationship between critical angle and refractive index.
Transmission of light through optical fibres.

Images formed by single thin lenses.
Knowledge that
1÷ f= 1÷u + 1÷y and
m = y÷u

Power of lens: P = 1÷f
Two lenses in contact:
P = P₁ + P₂
The eye: optical structure; short sight, long sight, and corrections

Use of diffraction grating formula.
n? = d sin?

Derivation of formula.

Polarisation.

Dispersion by a prism and a diffraction grating.
Recombination by a prism.

Primary, secondary and complementary colours.
Addition of colours. Pigment colours need not be considered.

Relative positions of radiations in terms of wavelength and frequency.

Detection of UV and IR radiation.

The spectrometer and the function of its parts.

Demonstration using ray box or laser or other suitable method.

Real-is-positive sign convention.

Simple exercises on mirrors by ray tracing or use of formula.

Demonstration using ray box or laser or other suitable method.

Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration.
Appropriate calculations.

Simple exercises on lenses by ray tracing or use of formula

Suitable method of demonstrating the wave nature of light.
Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration of polarisation using polaroids or other suitable method.

Demonstration.

Demonstration.

Demonstration.

Demonstration.

Practical uses of spherical mirrors

Concave

• dentists
• supermarkets
• floodlights

Convex

• driving mirrors
• projectors

Practical examples, e.g. real and apparent depth of fish in water.

Reflective road signs.
Mirages.
Prism reflectors.
Uses of optical fibres:

• telecommunications
• medicine (endoscopes).

Uses of lenses.

Spectacles.

Interference colours

• petrol film, soap bubbles.

Stress polarisation.
Polaroid sunglasses.

Rainbows, polished gemstones.
Colours seen on surfaces of compact discs.

Stage lighting, television.

Ultraviolet and ozone layer.
Infrared cameras:

• medical applications
• night vision.

Greenhouse effect.

CHARGES

1. Electrification by contact
2. Electrification by induction
3. Distribution of charge on conductors
4. Electroscope

ELECTRIC FIELD

1. Force between charges
2. Electric fields
3. Potential difference

Charging by rubbing together dissimilar materials.
Types of charge: positive, negative.
Conductors and insulators.
Unit of charge: coulomb.
Total charge resides on outside of a metal object.
Charges tend to accumulate at points.
Point discharge.
Structure.

Coulomb's law
F = 1 ÷ 4pe Q₁ x Q₂ ÷ d²
- an example of an inverse
square law.
Forces between collinear charges.

Idea of lines of force.
Vector nature of electric field to be stressed.

Definition of electric field strength.

Definition of potential difference:
work done per unit charge to transfer a charge from one point to another.
Definition of volt.
Concept of zero potential.

Demonstration of forces between charges.

Demonstration using an insulated conductor and a nearby charged object.

Van de Graaff generator can be used to demonstrate these phenomena.

Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration of field patterns using oil and semolina or other method.

Appropriate calculations - collinear charges only.

Appropriate calculations.

Domestic applications:

• dust on television screen
• static on clothes.

Industrial hazards:

• in flour mills
• fuelling aircraft.

Lightning.
Lightning conductors.

Uses.

Precipitators.
Xerography.
Hazards: effect of electric fields on integrated circuits.

CAPACITANCE

1. Capacitors and capacitance

ELECTRIC CURRENT

1. Electric current

2. Sources of emf and electric current

3. Conduction in materials

4. Resistance

5. Potential

6. Effects of electric current

7. Domestic circuits

Definition: C = Q/V
Unit of capacitance.

Parallel plate capacitor.

Use of C = Ae ? ÷ d

Energy stored in a capacitor.
Use of W = ½ CV²
Capacitors - conduct a.c. but not d.c.

Description of electric current as flow of charge; 1 A = 1 C s^-1

Pd and voltage are the same thing; they are measured in volts. A voltage when applied to a circuit is called an emf.

Conduction in

• metals
• ionic solutions (active and inactive electrodes)gases
• vacuum
• semiconductors.

References in each case to charge carriers.

Conduction in semiconductors: the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic conduction; p-type and n-type semiconductors.

The p-n junction: basic principles underlying current flow across a p-n junction.

Definition of resistance, unit.
Ohm's law.
Resistance varies with length,
cross-sectional area, and temperature.
Resistivity.
Resistors in series and parallel.
Derivation of formulas.
Wheatstone bridge.

LDR - light-dependent resistor.
Thermistor.

Potential divider.

Heating: W = I 2Rt

Chemical effect - an electric current can cause a chemical reaction.
Magnetic effect of an electric current.

Plugs, fuses, MCBs (miniature circuit breakers).
Ring and radial circuits, bonding, earthing, and general safety precautions. RCDs (residual current devices).
No drawing of ring circuits required.
The kilowatt-hour. Uses.

Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration that capacitance depends on the common area, the distance between the plates, and the nature of the dielectric.

Appropriate calculations.

Charge capacitor-discharge through lamp or low-voltage d.c. motor.
Appropriate calculations.
Demonstration.

Interpretation of I-V graphs.

Demonstration of current flow
across a p-n junction in forward and reverse bias, e.g. using a bulb.

Appropriate calculations.

Use of ohmmeter, metre bridge.
Appropriate calculations.

Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration of LDR and
thermistor.

Demonstration.

Demonstration of effect.
Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration of effect.

Demonstration of effect.

Wiring a plug.
Simple fuse calculations.

Appropriate calculations.

Common uses of capacitors:

• tuning radios
• flash guns
• smoothing
• filtering.

Sources of emf: mains, simple cells, lead-acid accumulator, car batteries, dry batteries, thermocouple.

Neon lamps, street lights.

Electronic devices.
LED, computers, integrated circuits.

Rectification of a.c.

Practical uses of Wheatstone bridge for temperature control and fail-safe device.

Potentiometer as a variable potential divider.

Everyday examples.
Advantage of use of EHT in transmission of electrical energy.
Uses of the chemical effect.
Everyday examples.

Electricity at home

• fuse box
• meter, etc.

Electrical safety.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

1. Magnetism

2. Magnetic fields

3. Current in a magnetic field

4. Electromagnetic
induction

Magnetic poles exist in pairs.
Magnetic effect of an electric current.

Magnetic field due to

• magnets
• current in
  • a long straight wire
  • a loop
  • a solenoid.

Description without mathematical details.
Vector nature of magnetic field to be stressed.

Current-carrying conductor experiences a force in a magnetic field.
Direction of the force.

Force depends on

• the current
• the length of the wire
• the strength of the magnetic field.

F ? I l B

Magnetic flux density B = F ÷ I l
Derivation of F = qvB

Forces between currents (non-mathematical treatment).
Definition of the ampere.

Magnetic flux F = BA
Faraday's law.

Lenz's law.
Change of mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Demonstration using magnets,coils, and nails.

Demonstrations.

Demonstration of the force on a conductor and coil in a magnetic field.

Appropriate calculations.
Appropriate calculations.

Demonstration of the principle and laws of electromagnetic induction.
Appropriate calculations.

Electromagnets and their uses.

Earth's magnetic field - use in navigation.

Applications in motors, meters, and loudspeakers.

Application in generators.

5. Alternating current

6. Concepts of mutual induction and self-induction

Variation of voltage and current with time, i.e. alternating voltages and currents.
Peak and rms values of alternating currents and voltages.

Mutual induction (two adjacent coils): when the magnetic field in one coil changes an emf is induced in the other,
e.g. transformers.
Self-induction: a changing magnetic field in a coil induces an emf in the coil itself, e.g. inductor.

Structure and principle of operation of a transformer.

Effects of inductors on a.c. (no mathematics or phase relations).

Use oscilloscope to show a.c.

Compare peak and rms values.

Demonstration.

Demonstration.

Demonstration.

Appropriate calculations (voltage).

National grid and a.c.

Uses of transformers.

Dimmer switches in stage lighting - uses of inductors.

THE ELECTRON

1. The electron

2. Thermionic emission

3. Photoelectric emission

4. X-rays

THE NUCLEUS

1. Structure of the atom

2. Structure of the nucleus

3. Radioactivity

4. Nuclear energy

5. Ionising radiation
and health hazards

The electron as the indivisible quantity of charge.
Reference to mass and location in the atom.
Units of energy: eV, keV, MeV, GeV.

Principle of thermionic emission and its application to the production of a beam of electrons.
Cathode ray tube, consisting of heated filament, cathode, anode, and screen. Deflection of cathode rays in electric and magnetic fields.

Photoelectric effect.
The photon as a packet of energy: E = hf
Effect of intensity and frequency of incident light.
Photocell (vacuum tube): structure and operation.
Threshold frequency.
Einstein's photoelectric law.

X-rays produced when high-energy electrons collide with target.
Principles of the hot-cathode
X-ray tube. X-ray production as inverse of photoelectric effect.
Mention of properties of X-rays:

• electromagnetic waves
• ionisation
• penetration.

Principle of Rutherford's experiment.
Bohr model, descriptive treatment only.
Energy levels.

Emission line spectra:
hf = E2 - E1

Atomic nucleus as protons plus neutrons.
Mass number A, atomic number Z, A/Z X, isotopes.

Experimental evidence for three kinds of radiation: by deflection in electric or magnetic fields or ionisation or penetration.
Nature and properties of alpha, beta and gamma emissions.
Change in mass number and atomic number because of radioactive decay.

Principle of operation of a detector of ionising radiation.
Definition of becquerel (Bq) as one disintegration per second.

Law of radioactive decay.
Concept of half-life: T 1/2
Concept of decay constant
rate of decay = ? N
T 1/2 = ln2 /?

Principles of fission and fusion.
Mass-energy conservation in nuclear reactions: E = mc 2

Nuclear reactor (fuel, moderator, control rods, shielding, and heat exchanger).

General health hazards in use of ionising radiations, e.g. X-rays, nuclear radiation.

Environmental radiation: the effect of ionising radiation on humans

depends on the type of radiation, the activity of the source (in Bq),

the time of exposure, and the type of tissue irradiated.

Use of cathode ray tube to demonstrate the production of a beam of electrons - deflection in electric and magnetic fields.

Demonstration, e.g. using zinc plate, electroscope, and different light sources.

Demonstration of a photocell.

Experiment may be simulated using a large-scale model or a computer or demonstrated on a video.

Demonstration of line spectra and continuous spectra.

Demonstration of ionisation and penetration by the radiations using any suitable method, e.g. electroscope, G-M tube.

Demonstration of G-M tube or solid-state detector.
Interpretation of nuclear reactions.

Appropriate calculations
(not requiring calculus).
Appropriate calculations
(not requiring calculus).

Interpretation of nuclear reactions.

Appropriate calculations.

Audiovisual resource material.

Measurement of background radiation.
Audiovisual resource material.

Electron named by G. J. Stoney.

Quantity of charge measured by Millikan.

Applications

• cathode ray oscilloscope
• television.

Use of CRO to display signals:

• ECG and EEG.

Applications of photoelectric

sensing devices:

• burglar alarms
• automatic doors
• control of burners in central

heating

• sound track in films.

Uses of X-rays in medicine and industry.

Hazards.

Lasers.
Spectroscopy as a tool in science.

Uses of radioisotopes:

• medical imaging
• medical therapy
• food irradiation
• agriculture
• radiocarbon dating
• smoke detectors
• industrial applications.

Fusion: source of Sun's energy. Nuclear weapons.

Environmental impact of fission reactors.

Development of fusion reactors.

Health hazards of ionising radiations.
Radon, significance of background radiation, granite.
Medical and dental X-rays.

Disposal of nuclear waste.
Radiation protection.

PARTICLE PHYSICS

1. Conservation of energy and momentum in nuclear reactions

2. Acceleration of protons

3. Converting mass into other forms of energy

4. Converting other forms of energy into mass

5. Fundamental forces of nature

6. Families of particles

7. Anti-matter

8. Quark model

Radioactive decay resulting in two particles.
If momentum is not conserved, a third particle (neutrino) must be present.

Cockcroft and Walton - proton energy approximately 1 MeV: outline of experiment.

"Splitting the nucleus"
H + Li ? He + He + Q
1 MeV 17.3 MeV

Note energy gain.
Consistent with E = mc2

Reference to circular accelerators progressively increasing energy available:
proton-proton collisions
p + p + energy ? p + p + additional particles.

Strong nuclear force:
force binding nucleus, short range.
Weak nuclear force:
force between particles that are not subject to the strong force, short range.
Electromagnetic force:
force between charged particles, inverse square law.
Gravitational force:
inverse square law.

Mass of particles comes from energy of the reactions
m = E ÷ C2
The larger the energy the greater the variety of particles. These particles are called "particle zoo".
Leptons: indivisible point objects, not subject to strong force, e.g. electron, positron, and neutrino.
Baryons: subject to all forces, e.g. protons, neutrons, and heavier particles.
Mesons: subject to all forces, mass between electron and proton.

e+ positron, e- electron.

Each particle has its own anti-particle.

Pair production: two particles produced from energy.
? rays ? e⁺ + e^-
conserve charge, momentum.
Annihilation: Two ? rays from annihilation of particles.
e⁺ + e^- ? 2hf (? rays)
conserve charge, momentum.

Quark: fundamental building block of baryons and mesons.
Six quarks - called up, down, strange, charmed, top, and bottom.
Charges: u^+2/3, d^-1/3, s^-1/3
Anti-quark has opposite charge to quark and same mass.
Baryons composed of three quarks: p = uud, n = udd, other baryons any three quarks.
Mesons composed of any quark and an anti-quark.

Appropriate calculations to convey sizes and magnitudes and relations between units.

Appropriate calculations.

Appropriate calculations.

Audiovisual resource material.

Appropriate calculations.

Identify the nature and charge of a particle given a combination of quarks.

First artificial splitting of nucleus.
First transmutation using artificially accelerated particles.

Irish Nobel laureate for physics, Professor E. T. S. Walton (1951).

History of search for basic building blocks of nature:

• Greeks: earth, fire, air, water
• 1936: p, n, e.

Particle accelerators, e.g. CERN.

Pioneering work to investigate the structure of matter and origin of universe.
International collaboration, e.g. CERN.

Paul Dirac predicted anti-matter mathematically.

James Joyce: "Three quarks for Muster Mark".

APPLIED ELECTRICITY

1. Current in a solenoid

2. Current in a magnetic field

3. Electromagnetic induction

4. Alternating current

5. Applications of diode

6. The transistor

7. Logic gates

Electromagnetic relay.

Simple d.c. motor.
Principle of operation of moving-coil loudspeaker.
Principle of moving-coil galvanometer.
Conversion of a galvanometer to

• an ammeter
• a voltmeter
• an ohmmeter.

Induction coil.

Structure and principle of operation of simple a.c. generator.
Factors affecting efficiency of transformers.

Principle of induction motor.
Rectification - use of bridge rectifier.

P-n diode used as half-wave rectifier. Light-emitting diode
(LED); principle of operation.

Photodiode.

Basic structure of bi-polar transistor.
The transistor as a voltage amplifier - purpose of bias and load resistors.

The transistor as a voltage inverter.

AND, OR and NOT gates.

Demonstration.

Demonstration.

Appropriate calculations for ammeter and voltmeter (not ohmmeter).

Demonstration.

Demonstration.

Demonstration.

Use of a bridge rectifier and a capacitor to obtain smooth d.c.
Use of LED.

Demonstration.

Demonstration.

Establish truth tables for AND, OR and NOT gates. Use of IC in demonstrating circuits.

Uses.

Uses of motors and meters.

Callan. Electric fences.

Uses of generator and transformer.

Conversion of a.c. to d.c.
Practical applications.
LED: optical display.
Fibre optic receiver.

Applications of the transistor as a switch should be indicated,
e.g. to switch a relay.

Relate NOT to transistor.
Boole.