Teaching Part II: Topics for Study

A PRELIMINARY COMMENTARY ON THE LAYOUT OF TOPICS

• Each topic has specified date parameters. These parameters are essentially indicative since the past does not lend itself to neat divisions and mathematical exactitude. Nevertheless, the parameters are intended to help define the material to be covered. Typically, the time period of a topic is 50-70 years; however, some topics have a longer or shorter time frame where this is required by reasons intrinsic to the topic.
• Students are not required to study every significant development within the date parameters but only those which feature in the listed elements. The breadth of coverage which a study of the elements entails is balanced by the in-depth coverage of the case studies.
• The perspective headings under which the elements are arranged are included in each topic to ensure a wideranging approach to the study of the past. The arrangement of elements does not preclude a chronological approach to the overall teaching of the topic; however, some aspects ­ such as economic trends and changing social patterns ­ may require discrete treatment over the whole time span of the topic.
• The three case studies listed for each topic involve indepth investigation of particularly significant or representative aspects of the topic. The in-depth approach affords an opportunity to work with sources in a structured manner within a contextual framework. While this applies to all the topics for study, it is recommended that the topic prescribed for documentsbased study should receive an extra allocation of time (an additional 8 hours or 12 classes is recommended) and that this time should be used for structured sourcebased work. It should be noted that work on the case studies has a crucial role to play in the achievement of many key syllabus objectives e.g
  understanding of procedural concepts
  recognition of the nature of historical knowledge
  development of evidence handling skills.
• Ten key personalities are listed for each topic. None of the lists is intended as a definitive statement of the ten most important figures for the topic in question. All of those included have relevance to listed elements. The lists are not intended as additional elements; rather, they are intended to identify people a student should encounter as a matter of course in their study of the elements. They are also intended to assist Ordinary level students in finding a pathway through the elements.
• Key concepts are listed for each topic. Again, the lists are not intended as additional elements: they are specified to identify concepts a student is likely to encounter in their study of a topic. In many cases, they are `gateway' concepts that will help a student to find a `way in' to engagement with the main issues of the topic. They are also intended to facilitate differentiation between Higher and Ordinary level students.

TIME MANAGEMENT AND THE TEACHING OF THE TOPICS

It is anticipated that the number of class periods to be allocated to the teaching of a topic will be in the range 54-60. The set of elements listed under each perspective heading should have a reasonable allocation of time: a minimum of sixteen classes is recommended but an allocation of 18-20 classes is likely to be more typical. Case studies should account for something in the region of one quarter of the overall time allocated to the topic.

RECOMMENDED APPROACHES TO THE TEACHING OF THE TOPICS

The teaching approaches outlined below are not intended as discrete and opposing strategies. (There are, indeed, significant areas of overlap between the five approaches.) Rather, it is hoped that teachers will tailor different elements of the approaches described to suit their own personal circumstances, the abilities of their students and the particular demands of each specific topic that they are teaching.

A: AN ENQUIRY- FOCUSED APPROACH ­ RATIONALE

There are sound educational and historical reasons why one should structure one's teaching around a set of questions that relate to the major themes and issues of a topic. Carefully framed questions can arouse the curiosity of students and focus attention on matters of key importance. They should also serve to highlight the syllabus emphasis on enquiry as the basis of all historical learning. In attempting to provide answers to enquiry questions, the importance of supporting evidence also becomes apparent to students.

FORMULATING QUESTIONS

Let us take as an example Topic 1 in Irish history from the Later Modern field of study: Ireland and theUnion, 1815-1870. The topic might be introduced by posing an overarching question or a series of questions that introduces students to the central concerns of a topic. An obvious, overarching question here might be framed along the following lines:

• Between 1815 and 1870 how significant a factor in Irishaffairs was the political union?
  or
• What was the impact on Irish life of the political unionbetween 1815 and 1870?

Anumber of visual overheads or videotaped extracts can be used in an introductory class to introduce such aspects as the flying of the Union Jack over public buildings, the social scene at Dublin Castle, the Irish presence at Westminster and the reception given to royal visitors. What students see in the pictures may be used to provoke a set of ancillary questions that will help to frame the approach to the topic, e.g.

• How was the country ruled under the Union?
• How much opposition was there to the way the countrywas ruled under the Union?

In outlining the elements to be covered, a further set of questions may be posed by the teacher, either at the introductory stage or as the work progresses, e.g.

• What was the impact of Daniel O'Connell on Irishaffairs?
• Why did some Irishmen advocate the use of physicalforce for political ends?
• How were society and economy affected by Ireland'smembership of the Union?
• How effective was the government's response to thethreat of famine?
• To what extent was the famine a watershed in thehistory of the period (and/or in the history of Irelandgenerally)?
• What were the main causes of sectarian tensions duringthe period?
  or
• To what extent did cultural and religious developmentsfuel sectarian tensions during this period?
• Did the political union have any significance forcreative artists, writers and scientific and technologicalinnovators?

Student activities

Some of the above questions lend themselves to whole class work; others provide good opportunities for group work and comparative analysis. For example, the teacher might choose to address the question, `How was the country ruledunder the Union?' to the class as a unit on the basis that the response is essentially one of finding out information. A textbook can be used to identify the main features of government, politics and administration during the period. The completion of tables can be a useful learning and/or teaching tool for such work e.g.

On the other hand, the question `How much opposition was there to the way the country wasruled under the Union?' provides an opportunity for group work and source analysis. As a preliminary exercise, the class could be divided into groups and given a range of sources to help them decide on their initial response. The group might be given a sheet with the question on top and three categories of response below. The sheet might be laid out as follows:

The group discusses which of the three columns is most appropriate for each source and which answer is most supported by the evidence.

The exercise can only result in a very tentative answer (or set of answers) which will be tested as the appropriate elements of the topic are studied. However, the exercise can help to establish some of the key principles set down in the objectives e.g.

• If the same set of sources is given to each group and different conclusions are arrived at, this can illustrate how a body of evidence may be interpreted differently by different historians.
• If different sources have been given to each group, this can be used to illustrate how historical judgements depend on the available evidence.

If the questions posed are to engage the interest of students they are best introduced by a `hook' or attention-grabber. In the case of the question, `What wasthe impact of Daniel O'Connell on Irish affairs?' this might take the form of political cartoons and/or ballads showing opposing views of O'Connell and his influence. Insofar as is practicable, and particularly with sensitive or controversial issues, a range of perspectives should be provided so that students may realise such syllabus objectives as developing the ability `to look at acontentious or controversial issue from more than one pointof view'. The presentation of a range of perspectives is of particular importance when dealing with the case studies.

THE CASE STUDIES

To familiarise students with the different perspectives on an issue, a variety of source materials should be examined when dealing with a case study. e.g.

Appropriate questions to be used here to introduce the work on the case studies might include the following:

• What sources are most helpful in telling us about the rangeof private responses to the Famine?
• To what extent was the successful campaign for CatholicEmancipation a personal achievement of O'Connell's?
• How significant was the impact on the Catholic Church inIreland of the Synod of Thurles, 1850?

DIFFERENTIATION

For the most part, the same work can be undertaken with students regardless of the level they are likely to take in the terminal examination. However, the wording and intent of shared key questions should be clear to all students; for the more able student, questions may be `expanded' to test higher thinking skills. For example, the following question could be explored by all the students in a class, `What were the main causes of sectarian tensions inIreland during this period?' while Higher level students might focus on the question of `To what extent did culturaland religious developments fuel sectarian tensions duringthe period?'

ASSESSMENT

As the work on a topic progresses, it will be appropriate to set some source-based questions, particularly in relation to the case studies. (See the assessment guidelines for an example of a documents-based question on the case study, Dublin 1913 ­ Strike and lockout.) The key questions will provide the basis for written exercises as the work on a particular set of elements is concluded. The manner in which such exercises are phrased should reflect the language level of the group for which they are set. Answers should be variable in length, depending on such factors as the scope of the question set and the evaluative element (if any). At the conclusion of a topic, some sort of overarching question (or questions) should be set so that the student takes away a meaningful overview of the topic. Some examples of useful questions follow:

• Why was the period 1815-1850 a time of economic crisis inIreland?
• What changes in Irish society and economy were eithercaused or accelerated by the Famine?
• What are the main ways in which new technologies had animpact on Irish society and economy between 1815 and1870?
• Why did Belfast grow faster than Dublin during thisperiod?
• Compared to the role of the Viceroy, how important was therole of the Chief Secretary in the ruling of Ireland duringthis period?
• How much of the credit for the success of the campaign forCatholic Emancipation in 1829 does Daniel O'Connelldeserve?
• Why did O'Connell succeed with the campaign forEmancipation and fail with the campaign for Repeal?
• Why were the Fenians heroes to some and villains toothers?
• How important was the role of Cardinal Paul Cullen increating a stronger Catholic Church in Ireland?
• Why do the life and writings of William Carleton providean interesting case study for students of this period?
• To what extent did evangelical preachers influence thedevelopment of Irish Protestantism between 1815 and1870?
• Between 1815 and 1870, in what ways did the politicalunion have an impact on the everyday lives of people allover Ireland?

Some of the above questions are suited to individual answering by students and will form part of the preparation for the eventual terminal examination. However, some are more suited to group work and class debates where the emphasis is on interrogation of evidence and the forming of judgements based on an evaluation of evidence. For example, the question, `How much of thecredit for the success of the campaign for CatholicEmancipation in 1829 does Daniel O'Connell deserve?' provides much opportunity for classroom debate and group evaluation of evidence. By engaging in such exercises, students are enabled to fulfil one of the key objectives of the syllabus viz. to develop the ability to `think critically bymaking judgements based on an evaluation of evidence.'

B: A MULTI-PERSPECTIVE APPROACH

RATIONALE

Amulti-perspective approach can help students to grasp some of the key points that underlie the syllabus objectives, e.g.

• that there is not necessarily one correct version of a particular historical event
• that the same historical event can be described and explained in different ways depending on the standpoint of (for example) the eye-witness or historian
• that the same piece of evidence may be interpreted differently by different historians
• that few historical sources of evidence can be deemed to be totally impartial and that the context in which they were produced must always be taken into consideration.

TEACHING IMPLICATIONS

Firstly, the teacher will need a range of texts or other sources that display different perspectives on the historical phenomena under investigation. Secondly, the teacher will need to direct students in identifying similarities and differences in the accounts. If students are to understand particular viewpoints on an historical episode, they will need to be provided with a context i.e. where the holders of a particular viewpoint are `coming from'; what their political, economic, social or cultural circumstances are and what are their specific objectives and priorities. Thirdly, the teacher will need to assist students in relating one perspective to another so that a more rounded and complete picture emerges. While the approach involves exposure to different perspectives, it also involves the development of analytical skills and a way of thinking historically that is always conscious of alternative viewpoints.

EXEMPLAR

Let us take as an example Topic 5 in the history of Europe and the wider world from the Later Modern field of study: European retreat from Empire and theaftermath, 1945-1990. Here, there are clearly two broad perspectives or viewpoints that permeate the whole topic viz. that of the coloniser and the colonised. In the case of a number of elements, a broader range of perspectives applies e.g. in the element, `British withdrawal from Palestine and origins of Arab-Israeli conflict', the British,

Arab and Israeli perspectives are obviously of key importance. Indeed, `Arab' here is plural in that one is referring not only to the Palestinian Arabs but also to those surrounding Arab states which were drawn into the conflict. The perspectives of France and the USA are also relevant.

The main focus of the topic from the political and administrative perspective is the withdrawal of European powers from an imperial role in Asia (with a particular focus on India, Indochina and the East Indies), Palestine and Africa (with a particular focus on Algeria, Nigeria, the Congo, Tanzania and Angola) and their subsequent relations with their former colony or mandate. The two European powers that feature most prominently are Britain and France.

The first set of elements refers to European retreat from empire in Asia and subsequent relations between the formerly colonising and colonised powers. The related case study examines `British withdrawal from India, 19451947'. While students will need to be made aware of the parallels and dissimilarities between the situation in the Indian sub-continent and that in Indochina and the East Indies, the multi-perspective approach applied to India can be applied to the other areas, albeit in a less detailed way. The following are examples of source extracts that could be used in dealing with British withdrawal from India and the consequent establishment, as independent states, of India and Pakistan:

BRITISH PERSPECTIVE

The Indian Independence Bill ... received the royal assenton the 18th [July]. The effect on India was magical;confronted for the first time with real responsibility,realizing that Parliament meant what it said and that thefuture of the country lay in their own hands, political Indiacame to rapid conclusions. The inevitability of partitionwas accepted by the Indian National Congress; the ...regrettable consequence, the division of Bengal and thePunjab, was agreed to... Regrets there must be at thepassing of the miracle of British rule in India....

Sir Stanley Reed, (1952) The India I Knew, 1897-1947 Odhams Press.

CONGRESS PARTY PERSPECTIVE

...We end today a period of ill-fortune and India discoversherself again. The achievement we celebrate today is but astep, an opening of opportunity, to the greater triumphs andachievements that await us... We think also of our brothersand sisters who have been cut off from us by politicalboundaries and who unhappily cannot share at present inthe freedom that has come. They are of us and will remainof us whatever may happen....

Jawaharlal Nehru to Constituent Assembly, 14 August, 1947.

[Source: Brian MacArthur, ed. (1999 second revised edition) The Penguin Book of Twentieth Century Speeches.

MUSLIM LEAGUE PERSPECTIVE

Now, if we want to make this great State of Pakistan happyand prosperous we should wholly and solely concentrate onthe well-being of the people ... If you will work in co-operation, forgetting the past, burying the hatchet, you arebound to succeed ... in course of time ... the Hinducommunity and the Muslim community ... will vanish ...You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you arefree to go to your mosques or to any other place of worshipin this State of Pakistan ... We are starting with thisfundamental principle that we are all citizens and equalcitizens of one State.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, on his election as first President of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, 11 August, 1947.

[As quoted in Akbar S. Ahmed , (1998) Jinnah, Pakistanand Islamic Identity Oxford University Press.

Questions such as the following could be used to draw attention to the different assumptions and perspectives of the three people quoted:

• Based on the evidence of the extracts, is it likely thatNehru and Jinnah shared Sir Stanley Reed's regret at`the passing of British rule in India'?
• Why, do you think, did Nehru place emphasis on `thegreater triumphs and achievements that await us'?
• Why did Jinnah talk about the need to `work in co-operation, forgetting the past, burying the hatchet...'?

In many cases, the context in which particular comments were made will need to be explained to students. In the above extracts, it is helpful for students to know that Sir Stanley Reed was editor of `The Times of India' from 1907 to 1923 and a Conservative M.P. at Westminster from 1938 to 1950; that Jawaharlal Nehru was at the forefront of the struggle for Indian independence from 1919 to 1947, spending nine years in gaol; and that Muhammad Ali Jinnah realised the importance of tolerance and cooperation, internally, if his geographically-divided state were to survive into the future.

In teaching a topic such as this with its multiple perspectives, starting with the perspectives of the `others' can help to resist the tendency to present a Eurocentric focus. The shift in emphasis involved in this approach can help to prevent the perspectives of `foreign' nations or national minorities being marginalised. In dealing with British withdrawal from India, for example, one would start with the perspectives of the Congress Party and the Muslim League; this can help to avoid an undue concentration on the independence struggle as the problem that had to be solved.

In dealing with society and economy, there are also many opportunities to look at developments from a number of perspectives. For example, the policies of Julius Nyerere provoked a range of reactions ­ both in Africa and in Europe ­ ranging from admiration and respectful support to derision and outright hostility. Immigration policies in Britain and France had their critics as well as their champions and, frequently, a range of opinion in between. The case study here, `The secession of Katanga, 19601965', examines an episode that provoked a variety of responses and remains controversial. The multi-perspective approach allows the various facets to be considered and weighed in the balance.

The elements relating to culture and religion also provide many opportunities for multi-perspective work e.g. `Tensions between indigenous culture and colonial culture',`the Islamic faith in Europe', `cultural diversity in multi-racial Britain and France'. Students may come to such elements with pre-conceived notions of their own, and the teacher can play an important role here in helping students to confront and question their own prejudices and to attempt to identify and understand the reasons and the thinking behind the perspectives of those who see things differently from themselves.

HISTORICAL EMPATHY

Historical empathy lies at the heart of the multiperspective approach. One of the stated objectives of the syllabus is that students should `be able to look at acontentious or controversial issue from more than one pointof view.' The following are some ways in which students can be encouraged to develop such an approach:

• Taking a cartoon or photograph (from a textbook or other source), students are asked to write captions for it that represent different perspectives.
• Taking a first-hand and (initially, at least) anonymous account of a particular event (e.g. the Suez Crisis, 1956), ask students to identify the point of view and/or country of the author. Ask students to suggest how the event might have been described or interpreted differently by a commentator from one of the other countries that had a key interest in the crisis.
• The teacher or textbook writer produces short `character sketches' that represent a particular perspective on an issue or event (e.g. with regard to the `winds of change' in Algeria, a colon, a representative of the FLN, a pragmatist in the de Gaulle mould). Students are asked to analyse and interpret the sketches based on their study of the issue or event. Such sketches can also form the basis for role-play as discussed on page 52.

CRITICAL EVALUATION

In following a multi-perspective approach, students should be encouraged to critically evaluate their textbooks and other classroom resources. In doing so, they might usefully address such questions as the following:

• Is it possible to identify the author's own perspective onthis topic? What are the clues or references that enableus to do so?
• Are there any missing perspectives here that make itdifficult to form a rounded version of the events?
• Is any bias on the part of the author evident (e.g. inher/his commentary, in the selection of perspectives orevidence)?

Similar questions could be used in evaluating the content of television documentaries, magazine articles and other such media.

C: THE TEACHING FOR UNDERSTANDING APPROACH

RATIONALE

The `teaching for understanding' approach makes understanding the key focus for all classroom activities. It provides a framework for the preparation of lesson plans and an evaluation mechanism for the assessment of student performance. It involves the application of five main aspects which are formulated to enhance teacher focus and student understanding. These aspects are as follows:

• Understanding goals ­ The teacher identifies what she/he want students to understand at the end of the lesson or series of lessons.
• Images and examples ­ The teacher uses a range of images, stimulus materials, examples and case studies to assist the students' understanding of particular topics.
• Prior experience ­ The teacher tries to find examples from the students' experiences or past learning which may help to illuminate the topic.
• New information ­ The teacher presents new information in the classroom or the student researches new information, usually outside of the classroom. Where the teacher is presenting new information, an imaginative approach is required to rouse curiosity and sharpen motivation.
• Understanding performances ­ Students are required, by a variety of mechanisms, to express their understanding of the topic. These performances will also help to reinforce student learning and understanding. Typical understanding performances would include the ability to
  • explain in own words
  • identify key issues
  • explain role of key personalities
  • debate or argue from different points of view
  • use evidence evaluation skills on previously unseen sources

TEACHING METHODOLOGIES

Awide range of standard classroom methodologies can be used in the application of teaching for understanding, e.g.

• Discussion, brainstorming, oral questioning ­ Feedback should be recorded and used as a basis for refining understanding.
• Group work and reporting back ­ This is particularly useful when working with sources in the classroom.
• Worksheets for individual tasks ­ These are particularly useful in identifying misunderstanding and gaps in understanding in the case of individual students.
• Inviting responses to stimulus material ­ Stimulus material will often provide the `hook' to draw students into engagement with a particular topic or aspect of a topic. It may also provide a `lens' through which students' understanding is clarified and crystallised.
• Formulation of research objectives ­ If students are to conduct a research study in accordance with the stipulated objectives, they need to understand the underlying purpose of the study and the need to set goals that are worthwhile and feasible.

EXEMPLAR

To illustrate the application of the teaching for understanding framework, let us take as an example Topic 1 in the history of Ireland from the Early Modern field of study: Reform andReformation in Tudor Ireland, 1494-1558. An approach to the teaching of the politics and administration elements might be set out as follows:

POLITICS AND ADMINISTRATION

Understanding goals

Students should be able to

• identify the reasons for the dominance of the 8th Earl of Kildare and the manner in which his power was exercised
• explain the reasons for the decline of Kildare power
• identify the measures taken by successive Tudor administrators to extend the royal sovereignty
• explain the significance for future developments of the policies of surrender and regrant and plantation.

Images and examples

Teachers use

• maps to illustrate the nature of Kildare hegemony in 1494 and the changed nature of political relationships by 1558
• pictures of some of the main protagonists so that their separate identities can be more clearly differentiated
• timelines to identify steps in the decline of Kildare power and the extension of Tudor sovereignty
• primary sources to illustrate such concepts as `surrender and regrant' and `plantation'.

Prior experience

Teachers

• refer back, as appropriate, to relevant work done in Junior Certificate history
• draw in references to events or personalities that have a local relevance or resonance
• focus on familiar, hackneyed accounts that afford the opportunity to challenge stereotypes and misrepresentation (e.g. the rebellion of Silken Thomas).

New information

Teachers

• provide textual or other resources to clarify and develop understanding of the elements and case studies
• focus attention on personalities and events not previously encountered
• draw attention to conflicts of interpretation (where appropriate).

Understanding performances

Students should be able to

• present an account of the fortunes of the Kildare family during the period under study
• identify the key steps in the extension of Tudor sovereignty in Ireland up to 1588
• discuss the effectiveness of the main political initiatives up to 1588 and, in particular, the workings of the Plantation of Laois/Offaly.

The above approach can also be applied to the teaching of the society and economy elements and the culture and religion elements. An approach to the teaching of the society and economy elements might be set out as follows:

SOCIETY AND ECONOMY

Understanding goals

Students should be able to

• understand the role of pastoral farming in the economy of Gaelic Ireland
• discuss the issue of feudal relationships and their significance in the society and economy of Tudor Ireland
• identify the factors inhibiting and the factors encouraging the growth of towns and trade during the period
• understand the significance of the concepts of kinship and family in Gaelic society
• explain the status of women in Gaelic society
• identify the different orders of Gaelic society and discuss the potential for social mobility within that society.

Images and examples

Teachers use

• pictures illustrative of Gaelic society in the 16th century e.g. pictures from John Derricke's "The Image of Ireland"
• sixteenth century maps to illustrate settlement and land use features (including the growth of towns)
• primary source extracts to illustrate such elements as feudalism and bastard feudalism, towns and guilds, trade, the family and kin.

Prior experience

Teachers

• refer back, as appropriate, to relevant work done in Junior Certificate History
• draw on knowledge of current pastoral farming practices to highlight different nature of 16th century pastoralism.

New Information

Teachers

• provide textual or other resources to clarify and develop understanding of the elements and the case study
• focus attention on unfamiliar concepts or terminology e.g. transhumance, bastard feudalism
• draw attention to conflicts of interpretation (where appropriate).

Understanding performances

Students should be able to

• explain the important role of pastoralism in Gaelic society and economy
• discuss the effect of feudal arrangements on society and economy in Tudor Ireland
• identify the factors that hindered and the factors that encouraged the growth of towns and trade during the period
• explain the concepts of family and kin as they applied in Gaelic Ireland
• discuss the status of women under Gaelic law
• identify the different orders of Gaelic society and discuss the prospects for social mobility.

An approach to the teaching of the culture and religion elements might be set out as follows:

CULTURE AND RELIGION

Understanding goals

Students should be able to

• understand the main reasons for the divisions in the pre-Reformation church
• explain the impact on the monastic orders of (a) the Observantine reform and (b) the dissolution of the monasteries
• the impact on liturgy and practice in Ireland of the Reformation under Henry VIII and Edward VI and the Counter-Reformation under Mary I
• the role in Gaelic society of the brehons, bards and annalists.

Images and examples

Teachers use

• primary source extracts to illustrate such elements as the monasteries and their dissolution, the Reformation under Henry VIII, the state of Gaelic culture
• timelines and/or tables to outline the main religious ordinances and regulatory changes brought in by Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary I
• pictures of some of the main protagonists of religious change to facilitate differentiation of their main policies
• map(s) to help illustrate the limitations on the enforcement of religious conformity.

Prior experience

Teachers

• refer back, as appropriate, to relevant work done in Junior Certificate history
• use local examples (e.g. dissolved monasteries), where applicable
• work from the familiar (e.g. reasons for Reformation under Henry), challenging misinterpretation where appropriate.

New information

Teachers provide textual or other resources to clarify and develop understanding of the elements and the case study

• focus attention on unfamiliar elements (e.g. a divided church in pre-Reformation Ireland, the Observantine reform, the work of annalists)
• draw attention to conflicts of interpretation (where appropriate).

Understanding performances

Students should be able to

• identify the main reasons for division in the pre-Reformation church
• explain how the monastic orders were affected by the Observantine reform and by the dissolution of the monasteries
• discuss the progress of the Reformation in Ireland up to the death of Mary I
• discuss the role of the bardic schools in Gaelic Ireland
• explain the roles of brehons and annalists in preserving Gaelic culture.

D: APPROACHING A TOPIC THROUGH THE KEY PERSONALITIES AND KEY CONCEPTS

The key personalities and key concepts have a crucial role to play in assisting students to engage with the main issues and events that are covered in the topic. The integration of these two `keys' can greatly enhance the student's overall understanding and help to elucidate the teacher's presentation of the elements of a topic. To illustrate this, let us take as an example Topic 4 in the history of Europe and the wider world from the Later Modern field of study, Division and realignment inEurope, 1945-1992.

KEY PERSONALITIES AND KEY CONCEPTS

It is important to stress at the outset that the approach to the key personalities should not be equated with the traditional notion of `biography'. Biographies of wellknown figures are generally presented in a particular manner ­ date and circumstances of birth, childhood, education, adult life, with reference to national and/or international events and an assessment of the person's importance. The presentation of key personalities does not require this degree of comprehensive coverage. Indeed, the view of the historian Lewis Namier may be of relevance here: `What matters in history is the great outline and thesignificant detail, what must be avoided is the deadly massof irrelevant detail.' The `significant detail' here is contained in the elements. The key personalities are not to be studied in isolation but, rather, in the context of their contribution as participants in and/or witnesses to the events outlined in the elements.

Equally, it is not intended that the key concepts be studied in isolation. The identification and discussion of a concept should arise from an exploration of the elements and, in many cases, the role in those elements of one or more key personalities. Many of the key concepts are `gateway' concepts that open the way to an understanding of a set of elements for students, and for Ordinary level students in particular. For Higher level students, their ability to place specific events and trends studied within a contextual framework will be an important indicator of their historical understanding.

INTEGRATING KEY PERSONALITIES AND KEY CONCEPTS

Most, though not all, of the key concepts for this topic can be associated with one or more of the key personalities. The first elements under `Politics and administration' concern the emergence of a post-World War Europe divided between a communist East and a capitalist West. Several key concepts relate to the new territorial and ideological division e.g. Cold War, capitalism, communism,Iron Curtain, satellite state, sovietisation. These provide animportant contextual framework for such elements as`major crises of the Cold War'. Through the experiences oftwo of the key personalities, Nikita Khrushchev and ImreNagy, the application of the concepts can be exemplifiedand clarified. The case study, `The Hungarian Uprising,1956', provides the opportunity to examine in detail theactions and motivation of these two leaders in an episodethat encapsulates many of the themes implicit in the citedconcepts.

When one moves on to the elements dealing with `emergence of reform movements in Eastern Europe; collapse of Soviet Union; fragmentation and realignment in Europe', the figure of Mikhail Gorbachev assumes particular significance and his actions illustrate and illuminate a number of key concepts. He contributes to the ending of theCold War after a period of détente, he moves away from the traditional Soviet dominance of the Eastern European satellite states, and his reforming role as a leader leads to a re-definition of traditional communism. The concept of glasnost [openness of expression] is central to an understanding of his style of leadership.

Pope John Paul II fits into important elements in each of the three perspectives. Under `Politics and administration', he has a peripheral but, arguably, crucial role in the element, `collapse of Soviet Union'. His commentaries on `Marriage, the family and the changing role of women...Affluence...and the consumer society' provide a counterpoint to more `progressive' views under `Society and economy'. Under `Culture/religion/science', his inheritance of the legacy of the Second Vatican Council (of which there is a case study) is relevant to the element `Changing patterns in religious observance' and to the concept of an ecumenical movement.

Jean Monnet is central to the elements, `Moves towards European unity, 1945-1957' and `establishment and evolution of EEC', as well as `moves towards free trade' under the `Society and economy' perspective. He believed that individual European countries could not gain stability and prosperity unless they worked towards the concepts of a federal Europe and a common market where goods and services could be traded freely across national frontiers. These two concepts mark Monnet's political and economic goals, although they were not exclusively the preserve of the Frenchman. Teachers can draw on the ideas of Monnet to illustrate the trend towards integration in western Europe and how his career demonstrated the slow progress towards that goal.

While Monnet is associated with the birth of the European ideal, Jacques Delors is associated with the development of institutions that embodied the ideal in the 1990s and beyond. He championed the Single European Act (1986) and oversaw the adoption of the Maastricht Treaty (1992). He articulated the blueprint for the European Community as it approached the 21st century after the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe. His vision of a community of five hundred million people living in a regulated market economy further expands the concept of capitalism.

An alternative vision is evident in the words and career of Margaret Thatcher whose antipathy to a federalEurope placed her in opposition to Jacques Delors. As a significant advocate of the policy of nuclear deterrence she is an important figure in relation to the element, `collapse of [the] Soviet Union'. Under the `Society and economy' perspective, Mrs. Thatcher is especially important in the element examining the `changing role of women', while she clarifies the definition of feminism by eschewing many of its basic premises. Her role in the re-definition of the concept of the welfare state helps to broaden and illustrate the concept of capitalism.

The concept of feminism sits more comfortably with the figure of Simone de Beauvoir. While Thatcher is associated with the increasing entry of women into higher education and public life, de Beauvoir is associated with more radical ideas of female emancipation. Her ideas form a backdrop to the element, `Marriage, the family and the changing role of women'. Her own personal life ­ through her relationship with Jean Paul Sartre ­ provides an example of the unorthodox lifestyles that emerged from the decline in marriage, as well as the changing structure of the family, during the period of this topic. Her insistence on the independence of women can also contribute to the element dealing with the `changing patterns of religious observance.'

The concept ofdissident writer is clearly identified in the figure of Alexander Solzhenitsyn whose contribution to the element, `Literature and social criticism, East and West' is pivotal. Solzhenitsyn's dissent, or disagreement with the government, and his protests at perceived abuses and injustice led to his imprisonment and expulsion from the official writers' organisation. His treatment shows the censorious and repressive policy of the governments of the USSR until the Gorbachev era of glasnost.

The concept of pop star arises in the context of the element, `Youth and popular culture...and the mass media'. It links with the figure of John Lennon whose starring role as performer and songwriter with the Beatles brought him global fame in a manner that neatly illustrates the role and influence of the mass media. The appeal of the Beatles to young people throughout Europe also brings in the concept of the teenager.

STUDENT WORK

To consolidate the approach outlined above, students need to engage in activities that reflect the integration of key personalities and key concepts with the appropriate elements. The following are examples of questions that could be set as classroom or homework exercises or, alternatively, explored with the class as the basis for an enquiry based on evidence:

• Did Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of `glasnost' cause thecollapse of the Soviet Union?
• On the idea of a federal Europe, what were the differentviews held by Jacques Delors and Margaret Thatcher?
• How does the life and work of Simone de Beauvoirshow the influence of feminism on the changing role ofwomen?
• How does the career of John Lennon demonstrate therole of the mass media in creating popular cultureduring the 1960s and 1970s?

E: A BALANCED APPROACH TO GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL WORK

There is a widespread consensus that students learn better where teachers use a range of teaching and learning styles combining whole class teaching, small group work and individual work. Group work has a crucial role to play in helping students to achieve the syllabus learning outcomes. Students' ability to `be able to look at a contentious or controversial issue from more than one point of view' can be greatly enhanced through carefullystructured group work. The research study requires that students undertake individual work in a structured manner which is knitted in to the general principles and many of the key objectives of the history syllabus. The ability to undertake such work will be honed through group and individual work on the documents-based study and on the other topics for study.

To illustrate some of the aspects that need to be considered in attempting to balance group and individual work, let us take as an example Topic 1 in the history of Europe and the wider world from the Early Modern field of study: Europefrom Renaissance to Reformation, 1492-1567.

CLASSROOM READING

Since written sources play such a key role in the work of the historian, reading is an important and integral part of the study of history. All students should be engaged in the classroom reading of texts as a shared activity and here, as elsewhere, the teacher should be leader and facilitator. It is important that students be exposed to a reasonable variety of historical materials if they are to understand the relationship between primary sources and secondary works produced by historians. In the case of this topic, a wide variety of primary sources is available. For example, most of the writings of Martin Luther are in print and many are available on the internet. Many of these writings are published in convenient booklets with explanatory notes and/or questions suitable for Senior Cycle students. Examples include the Cambridge Topics in History:Documents and Commentary series and Hodder and Stoughton's History at Source series. Some series include extracts from secondary works. Where a textbook is the main resource being used in the teaching of a topic, it is important that students have some understanding of the basis on which the narrative has been framed. Questions such as the following could usefully be explored with students: Do we know anything about the author? What arethe author's credentials for writing this book? Does itacknowledge its main sources? Does it present differentperspectives? Does it contain any statement on the natureof history? Does it contain a good range of documentaryextracts? Are these used to assist students' understandingof the nature of history and/or to develop students'confidence and competence in working with evidence?

All classroom reading should be accompanied by questions. Where a source is being read for the first time, the appropriate questions from the scheme outlined on page 24 can be used. Much source-based work lends itself to small group discussion since answers need to be teased out and are rarely black or white in nature. Groups may vary in size depending on a variety of factors such as classroom configuration, familiarity with small group work, and extent of involvement in source-based work; however, a figure between four and six is probably preferable.

NOTE-TAKING

The syllabus objectives list a number of research skills that students are expected to develop in the course of their study. These include the ability to `select and recordrelevant data'. For the individual student this is a key part of her/his work in history: learning to identify the `significant detail' and recording it in his/her own words. It is a fundamental part of the preparation for the research study, where the student gets the opportunity to demonstrate her/his competence as an independent learner.

While note-taking may come naturally to some students, for others support and assistance will be required. Initially, it may be useful to take a narrative extract ­ say, a chapter or part of a chapter from a textbook ­ and, having set a task or identified a theme, explore with the class how one might draft notes that would be relevant to the issues raised. In some cases, this work could be best conducted through the use of small groups where the end results could be compared and students encouraged to engage in constructive criticism of their own and other groups' work.

Among the note-taking skills that students need to acquire are: how to identify the `significant detail', how to record such information or evidence in their own words, how to organise their points in a meaningful way, how to keep references about their sources and how to organise their notes for easy reference. An indexed folder is a good option for most students, where teacher hand-outs, students' own notes, worksheets, articles downloaded from the internet and other material can be filed according to topic and perspective. Each case study [here, `The divorce of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon', `Seville, the port of the New World' and `Calvin's Geneva'] would have its own dedicated section. Whatever system of notes organisation students operate, the key consideration is that it allows them to find information or references easily when needed.

WRITTEN ASSIGNMENTS

Writing is an important part of school history. The syllabus objectives make it clear that `Studentsshould develop a range of skills associated with the studyand writing of history.' This requires guidance and support from the teacher and regular practice on the part of the pupil. `Regularity' here does not necessarily imply a weekly essay given as homework. It is important that students are adequately prepared for essay-type assignments, that they have a working knowledge of the events and issues involved. It is also important that the teachers take time to identify strengths and weaknesses in students' writing, so that students have the opportunity to learn from the exercise and improve their skills and understanding. Some teachers like to agree a contract with students at the beginning of Fifth Year e.g. an essay-type assignment every fortnight and an undertaking by students to plan their answers and to strive to take on board the teacher's comments on their writing.

While the writing of answers is usually an individual pursuit, there is merit, at least occasionally, in dealing with the initial planning of answers as a group exercise. To take an example, let us say that the written assignment to be given to the class is `To what extent did the marriage ofFerdinand and Isabella result in a dynastic but not apolitical union?' Their first task is to identify the key focus of the question, that of `union'. Students then need to examine their sources of information and list the issues that are relevant to the idea of union e.g. different political institutions, different currencies, the war against Granada, recruitment of armies, economic barriers to trade. The relevance or otherwise of particular issues can often be best teased out in a group context. As individual players, students need to make notes on important points relevant to each issue on their list. Keeping the question constantly in mind, they need to assess the nature and degree of union involved in each case and to make a note of their assessment. The issues identified need to be placed in some sort of logical order so that each one will form the material for a paragraph. Their concluding paragraph should offer a tentative conclusion that acknowledges (either explicitly or implicitly) the possibility that the evidence available to them may be interpreted differently and/or that the conclusion might be different if more evidence were available.

ROLE-PLAY

Role-play is a useful group strategy to help students develop an understanding of the differing perspectives of key players in past events. In this topic, the Case Study of `The divorce of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon' provides an ideal opportunity to apply this strategy. The class can be divided into small groups which are asked to consider the available evidence from the perspective of such key players as Catherine, Henry, Cardinal Wolsey, Charles V, Clement VII and Anne Boleyn. Group discussion, based on prior research and examination of evidence needs to be carried out to enable each member of the group to understand their perspective. Students prepare arguments to justify their perspective based on the available evidence. The intention is that the role-play be based on real factors that may have influenced people's decisions to act as they did. An individual (or individuals) from each group represents their perspective and argues it to the class as a whole. Discussion, either in or out of the roles, should follow so that students clarify their own ideas and understand and appreciate those of others. A useful concluding exercise would be for each individual to set down in a short paragraph the alternative perspective that s/he found most persuasive and the reasons why that was so.

CLASS DISCUSSIONS

Group discussion is another strategy that can prove helpful in covering certain topics. Here, the emphasis might be more on marshalling evidence to sustain an argument than on understanding personal motivation. Let us say, for example that the teacher poses the question: Which of the following was the most important factorleading to the beginning of the Reformation ­ thepersonality and preoccupations of Martin Luther? Thefinancial demands of the Papacy? The work of Erasmusand the humanists? Abuses in the Church? Germanresentment at the control exercised by the Pope fromRome? (The list could easily be extended). Each one of a number of small groups could be asked to focus on a different contributory factor and present, and attempt to sustain, the case for it to be recognised as the pre-eminent factor. The exercise could end with an attempt, under the teacher's guidance, to prioritise the factors in terms of the importance they appear to have based on the evidence available to the class.

HISTORY AND THE INTERNET

The internet is an important resource for the teaching and learning of history. It provides unprecedented access for teachers and students to materials that support their work and studies. It provides opportunities for students to practise the skills of the historian. In the Information Age in which we live, the history teacher has a unique role to play in equipping students to make sense and derive value from the phenomenal mass of data that the worldwide web contains. If students are to make effective use of the internet in the course of their studies, they need to know how to search for information or evidence in a systematic and organised manner. They then need the enquiry skills that will enable them to evaluate the usefulness and/or limitations of what they have found.

POTENTIAL USES

For teachers and students, the internet provides access to

• a wide range of primary sources
• multimedia and other visual sources (e.g. photographs, newspaper articles, posters, newsreel clips)
• secondary source articles and commentaries on primary sources
• different perspectives on historical events from different countries and different historians or other commentators.

Access to such a wide range of sources provides new opportunities to

• practise the skills of the historian (e.g. devising a search strategy, enquiry skills, assessing reliability, crossreferencing).

ADVICE FOR TEACHERS

The teacher needs to adopt the same critical and evaluative frame of reference when dealing with the internet as would be applied to traditional printed sources. The internet has no overall editorial standards ­ anyone, after all, can create a website and students need to be made aware of the common pitfalls that are to be found there. Many sites are irresponsible in intent and/or shoddy in presentation and content.

To avoid the problems caused by propagandistic motives or lax standards, teachers should direct students to established educational sites (such as www.scoilnet.ie or http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/) to reputable libraries (such as Fordham University's at http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/), to archives (such as NetSerf at http://www.netserf.org/) and to universities (such as the Open University at http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/history/resources.htm).

Before assigning or recommending students to carry out research on the internet, teachers should acquaint themselves with the internet usage policy of the school and follow whatever guidelines are provided to ensure that students do not gain access to inappropriate material.

POTENTIAL DANGERS

Teachers and students need to be aware that the internet is no place for the uncritical and the unwary. Some historical material has been put on the internet for political or propaganda purposes; it may be highly selective and distorted in meaning by being removed from its original context. On the other hand, such sites may have a role to play in developing students' critical skills if they are examined with the teacher's assistance as part of a systematic approach to skills development.

The teacher should scrutinise the content and determine the quality of a site before it is recommended to students. If a website contains links to other sites with inappropriate material, it may be wise to avoid it. (Some websites on Nazi Germany with excellent illustrative material host links to extreme fascist political sites.)

GUIDANCE FOR STUDENTS

Students using the internet should apply the same standards of evaluation and criticism that apply to more traditional sources of evidence. It is especially important that students learn how to cite or refer to material that has been read or downloaded from the internet. This is an essential skill of the historian since it ensures that any material used can be accessed and checked by those who wish to study the same source, in whole or in part.

If students wish to refer to an internet site, they should supply the following information:

• the name and title of the author
• the title of the page or article (and that of the main title page, if the page quoted is only a part of the main site)
• the date it was written (if available)
• the website address or URL
• the date on which the material was read or downloaded.

Students should only use a primary source from the internet where the site contains a reference to the book, organisation, archive or repository where the source is to be found. Otherwise, the source should not be used. This stricture need not apply where sources appear on the website of the museum or library where the source is held.

A PRACTICAL EXERCISE FOR STUDENTS

There is no specific requirement in the syllabus that students use the internet as part of their course of study. Nevertheless, the teacher should provide guidance and direction to students in relation to its use. An exercise such as the following could be undertaken with students, perhaps in dealing with the introductory section on history and the historian or, alternatively, as part of the preparation for the research study.

Students are given a research task using the search facility on the internet. (The teacher needs to preview the type of material that emerges from a specific search before assigning it to students.) A clear set of instructions is provided to direct the work of students, something, perhaps, along the following lines:

1. Define the topic to be researched.
2. Select the specific search terms to be used.
3. Narrow down the first set of results, if needed. (Often, asearch will produce thousands of results and these willneed to be filtered down.)
4. Open up a small number of sites that appear to haveappropriate and relevant material.
5. Select the most appropriate and relevant material bycareful reading and evaluation.
6. Print off, download or take notes on chosen material.
7. Reflect on the process of research. Why were some siteschosen and not others? Why was some material deemedrelevant and appropriate and other material deemedirrelevant and inappropriate? What have I learnedabout the process of research?
8. Write the citation or reference information for eachinternet source that is used.

THE INTERNET AND THE RESEARCH STUDY

All of the above advice should be borne in mind where students are using internet-based sources in carrying out their Research Study. As the syllabus document makes clear, a `protocol' or standard approach is to be adopted on the use of `internet-sourced material'. While this may be adapted from time to time to reflect changing practice and/or the lessons of experience, initially, at least, it is likely to resemble the citation procedure described above.