Summary:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Language Acquisition and Language Learning
2.3 A Balanced Approach
2.4 Sequencing of Activities
2.5 Deep-end Strategies
2.6 The Role of Speaking and Writing Actbdties
2.7 Activities that Promote Linguistic Progression
2.1 Introduction
The approach to second language teaching based on communicative methodology introduced through the 1980's, while successful in many respects, is now seen to have had its shortcomings also. In particular the question of the relationship between communication, accuracy and creativity is being raised. Ideally the teaching and learning approach should enable the pupils to use the language purposefully, appropriately, creatively and accurately. While progress has been made in relation to fluency and ability to use the language in a fange of situation, lack of accuracy and creativity have been cited as a cause of concern. This puts the role of grammar back on the agenda arising from the belief that some form of grammar control based on implicit or explicit knowledge is necessary for creativity and accuracy in the use of language. This raises the questions ofwhat 'grammar' to teach and how to teach it. It is necessary firstly to consider the different ways in which language can be learned.
2.2 Language Acquisition and Language Learning
Language learning can come about in a number of ways. In demonstrating the complexity of the processes involved in learning a second language a distinction is made between the acquisition process and the formal learning process.
The Acquisition Process
The acquisition process refers to the largely subconscious process by which we acquire our first language or another language naturally as a result of attempts to use the language.
The Formal Learning Process
In the formal learning process learners become consciously aware of the rules of the target language and the rules for using the language through conscious learning strategies such as studying, comparing, analysing, practising etc.
Effective language learning depends on these two processes being taken into account and the teaching approach being adapted accordingly. For spontaneous language use involving such characteristics as:
- unpredictability
- choice
- information gap, opinion gap,
- integration of skills etc,
learners will be mosdy dependent on that which has been acquired or internalised. This is not to say that explicit knowledge about the target language does not play an important role. Such knowledge can help learners particularly in non-spontaneous communication e.g. in gtammar-focused exercises, in reading and writing and in speaking where there is time for preparation. Whether conscious learning ofgrammar helps activities listed in the Language Awareness component are aimed at equipping pupils with learning strategiesto promote learner autonomy and equip learners with lexico-grammatical knowledge as weil as other aspectsof communicative competence.
2.6 The Role of Speaking and Writing Activities
The following characterisation of language learning is designed to describe the ways in which the learners may actively engage in the learning process.
If this characterization reflecrs the way learners develop competence it is very important that the organisation of learning activities provides ample opportunity for speaking and writing activities since output is an importanr part of the learning process. Such activities are considered to aid learning in a number of possible ways including the following:
- by providing an opportunity for meaningful practice - learners learn to write by writing and to speak by speaking
- by providing learners with a way of testing out the hypotheses that they have been forming about the target language
- by generating responses e.g. corrections etc. which can provide learners with information about the comprehensibility or well-formedness of their utterances
- by encouraging learners to pay attention to grammatical accuracy so as to make their speech and writing more Ctarget-like' and inte[ligible.
Therefore, while some learners may have very limited potential needs in relation to writing for example, they should nonetheless be encouraged to engage in the type of writing activities that fillfils these functions.
2.7 Activities that Promote Linguistic Progression
Since learners appear to learn "naturally" even in the classroom by following their own route it is essential that their active participation be facilitated as far as possible. Activities having the following characteristics may provide the context for extending communicative and grammatical competence.
Activities which:
- encourage awareness of pattern
- draw attention to form/meaning relationships
- encourage learners to apply newly acquired language independently in defined contexts
- enable learners to try out new language in fresh contexts
- provide learners with opportunities to formulate provisional rules
- encourage learners to exercise choice in the language they use
- enable learners to refine provisional rules and draw conclusions
- require learners to use complex sentences linked by connectives
- invite learners to give sustained accounts.
(Source: KingL, and P. Boaks, (eds), Grammar/ A conference report. 1994 CILT)
Examples of activities incorporating these characteristics are given in subsequent chapters.