Section Three

1. APPROACHES TO THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF TEXTS

Rationale

This approach was introduced to bring some variety to the manner in which texts are studied at Leaving Certificate level and to give students another perspective on the potential of literature in their lives.

Although literary texts are aesthetic artefacts they can be gainfully approached from a range of other viewpoints, e.g. cultural, historical, social, which can enrich our understanding of the role and significance of literature.

Studying texts comparatively from these perspectives invites students to interact with the different imaginative worlds encountered and to make discriminations and evaluations. Such study will reflexively focus back on the student's own world and raise her or his awareness of it.

Modes of comparison

For each Leaving Certificate Course three modes of comparison will be prescribed. This means that the texts chosen for comparative study must be studied under those particular modes (headings).

At Higher Level the modes are:

• A theme or issue
• A historical/literaryperiod
• A literary genre
• The cultural context
• The general vision and outlook.

At Ordinary Level the modes are:

• Hero~heroine~villain
• Relationships
• Social setting
• Change and development
• Specific themes: love, race., prejudic< violence
• Aspects of story: tension, climax, ending.

While some of these modes are self-explanatory others need some elucidation.

Higher Level

Theme~Issue
Comparing texts on a prescribed theme(s). These would have to be themes which were pervasive and central to the texts chosen for study e.g.

• Power: King Leak Antigone, Wild Swans, The Third Man (F)
• Love: Jane Eyre, Far From the Madding Crowd, City of the Mind,Room with a View (F)
• War/violence: How Many miles to Babylon? Fly Away, Pews; Henry V,Dances with Wolves (F)

Historical~Literary period
Choose texts from different periods and compare them as products of their respective periods. This comparative mode focuses on the manner in which the dominant literary and philosophical ideas of a period are expressed in a text. Students should develop some understanding of how authors from different periods saw their art and their own role .e.g.

• Jane Eyre is a product of the Romantic Movement. How is this evident in the text?
• In what way is Things Fall Apart a modern text?
• What Victorian ideas about the novel are found in Great Expectations?

A literary genre
This mode focuses on the ways that texts tell their stow. The following kinds of questions should be asked about the texts being studied:

• How is this story told? (Who tells it? Where and when is it told?)
• Why is the stoW told in this way?
• What effects do all these have?
• Is there just one plot or many plots? How do these relate?
• What are the major tensions in the texts? Are they resolved or not?
• Was this way of telling the stoW successful and enjoyable?
• How do the texts compare as stories?
• Is the stoW humorous or tragic, romantic or realistic?
• To what genre does it actually belong? Is it Romance, Thriller, Social Realism, Saga, Historical, Fantasy, Science-fiction, Satire?
• How do the experiences of encountering a novel, a play (performed), and viewing a film differ?

Some options

• Compare texts as tragedies: Death of a Salesman, King Lear, The Remains of the Day, Antigone.
• Compare novels: Great Expectation& Huckleberry Finn, How Many Miles to Babylon?
• Compare a novel, a play and an autobiography, e.g. Someone Who'll Watch Over Me, An Evil Cradling, Things Fall Apart.

The cultural context
Compare texts focusing on social rituals, values, and attitudes. This is not to be seen as a sociological study of the texts. It means taking some perspectives which enable the students to understand the kind of values and structures with which people contend. It amounts to entering into the world of the text and getting some insight and feel for the cultural texture of the world created. This would imply considering such aspects as the rituals of life and the routines of living the structures of society, familial, social, economic, religious and political: the respective roles of men and women in society, the position of children, the role and nature of work, the sources and structures of power and the significance of race and class.

Some options

• Cat's Eye, The Remains of the Day, December Bride, Cinema Paradiso (F)
• Huckleberry Finn, Things Fall Apart, Othello
• Hamlet, Philadelphia, Here I Come/My Oedipus Complex and Other Stories, My LeftFoot (F)

General vision and viewpoint
Compare texts from the standpoint of the view they offer on life. Is it optimistic or pessimistic? What aspects of life do they concentrate on and why? Evaluate the coherence of the viewpoints as presented in the texts, e.g.

• Huckleberry Finn, The Remains of the Day, Antigone
• Henry V, Fly Away, Peter, Death and Nightingales.

Ordinary Level

Hero~heroine~villain
Compare the major protagonist(s) in chosen texts. This would include qualities, values, outlook of protagonist(s) and responses and evaluations of reader, e.g.
The Road to Memphis, Lies of Silence, The Silent People.

Relationships
Compare central and significant relationships. Outline how each was significant and contrast the nature and quality of the relationships and their effects, e.g.
Philadelphia, Here I Come/Fly Away, Peter, Cinema Paradiso (F).

Social setting
Compare the social worlds of the texts. How do they compare in terms of attitudes and values in relation to such aspects of society as the respective roles of men and women, structures of power and matters of class and race? e.g.
Cinema Paradiso, My Left Foot, My Oedipus Complex and Other Stories, City of the Mind.

Change and development
Compare the changes (or lack of changes) that take place in either an important character or society or a relationship. What causes these changes and how do they contribute to the respective texts? e.g.
Fly Away, Peter, How Many Miles to Babylon? Things Fall Apart.

Themes
Compare the treatment of a similar theme which is of central significance in texts, e.g.
Love: The Homesick Garden, December Bride, Much Ado about Nothing.

Aspects of narrative
Compare the techniques that texts use to create interest and pleasure for readers, e.g.
In Patagonia, Someone Who'll Watch over Me, The Third Man (F).

The modes of comparison should be seen as specific pathways through texts which will give a clear purpose to each re-reading.

Specific approaches

1 From the recommended list choose a group of texts mindful of class ability, interests and the prescribed modes of comparison which are to be studied.

2 From the texts (A, B and C) select one as the anchor text for the study. This text, Text A, will be the base from which to depart.

3 Read Text A reasonably quickly (two/three weeks). Generally it would be expected that students would do much of this reading, especially at these early stages, as assignments. These assignments could be quite directive to give the students a definite sense of purpose to their reading. Asking students to give summaries of the action in each chapter would not be an appropriate assignment. It would be preferable to request them to do one of the following:

In these chapters what events are significant for the main relationship? What conflicts emerged in these chapters? Which characters did you find of most interest? Whom did you like or dislike? What surprised you here? Did you find the world of the book attractive or not?

Clearly these questions can be given more focus in relation to specific texts.

The response journal could play a significant role here. It is not incumbent on the teacher to read every line of the text in class. In class discussion focus on the general impact of the text in relation to setting, action, tension/conflict and main characters.

4 Choose one comparative mode and do selective reading of text to highlight its significance.

5 Then read Text B as above.

6 When Text B is finished choose another comparative mode and do selective reading of text to highlight its significance. This should be different from the mode examined relative to Text A. In that way the comparative modes can be used to give variety of approach and perspective to the texts and help to avoid predictability. Having studied A, and B, from

Different perspectives the texts can then be studied comparatively from the point of view of the two modes.

Approach Text C in the same manner, i.e.

• Read for general impression and outline.
• Re-read selectively for relevant comparative mode.
• Compare with other texts on basis of chosen mode.
• Compare with other texts in all modes.

The time taken to study the comparative section of the syllabus should be at a maximum about 40 class periods.

Outline exemplar of comparative study based on some texts on the presentLeaving Certificate Course

(This is merely to illustrate the kind o f commentary and knowledge that would be expected in this context - this comparative option using these texts is not available for the course in 1999-2001)

Texts selected:King Lear, Wuthering Heights, Lord o f the Flies.

Comparativemodes:Theme, Literary genre, Cultural Context.

Theme/issue The Concept of Nature/Human Nature/Civilisation

King Lear
Nature, wild, barbarous, instinctive.., seen as destructive
V.
Nature, humanised and moral...seen as creative and nurturing.

Wuthering Heights
Nature a source of freedom and power...elemental and a moral...essential for living at depth...ambiguous in impact
V.
Nature tamed into artificiality and urbanisation...inadequate and shallow.

Lord of the Flies
Human nature is savage and power driven...aims at domination...civilisation is a sham
V.
Human nature as control and awareness...weak and vulnerable...easily a victim of the lust for power.

Literary genre

King Lear

• Shakespearean tragedy: story of a moral hero causing destruction
• Poetic language and imagery
• Two plots; parallel meanings
• Much death and treachery, violent action
• Sacrificial resolution.., awe and sympathy.

Wuthering Heights

• Romantic novel of passion, desire and celebration
• Unique narrative structure, variety of viewpoints, complex chronology
• Lyrical statement of the author's vision
• Takes a melodramatic subject and energises it with poetic resonance
• Almost Shakespearean in its energy and intensity.

Lord o f the Flies

• Modern novel
• Powerful and direct narrative line
• Variety of viewpoints adopted
• A novel basically of social realism with satiric intent
• Could be seen as an allegorical stow with a definite lesson to teach
• Perhaps less purely imaginative and exploratory than the other texts considered.

Cultural context

King Lear

• Medieval/Renaissance court: absolute power of monarch
• Family context; sibling rivalry brought to its extreme: no mother, no heir. . .
• Political intrigue, treachery and betrayal; desire for power excludes most other values
• Aristocratic context . . . However, the ordinary people play a small but significant role, usually positive.
• Few details of the texture of the world are given, e.g. food, clothes, rituals of the day.

Wuthering Heights

• Nineteenth-century rural setting; Yorkshire Moors and its weather.
• Patriarchal world, where men hold sway economically and socially; role of women...?
• Issue of class of much significance: Earnshaws V. Lintons
• Issue of race: Heathcliff's origins
• Rituals of life much in evidence, social life, religious belief

Lord of the Flies

• Late twentieth century/post nuclear holocaust
• Tropical island setting/public schoolboys shipwrecked
• Isolation of group essential ingredient of meaning
• Class difference most significant
• Rituals of life and customs subverted by context
• No female, no adults of significance present. Why?

2. APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF FILM

A film is a petrified fountain of thought' Jean Cocteau

Introduction

The study of a film as a comparative element is an option in the new English syllabus. The introduction of film study is an organic development from the media domain of the Junior Certificate and teachers should not feel completely unequipped to deal with it. Many will be quite adept in the area of visual literacy from their work on media studies in the Junior Certificate Syllabus so they will be familiar with some of the basic concepts and terminology needed in this field, e.g. framing, editing, cutting, variety of shots, camera angles, viewpoint and so on.

This section aims to give teachers a number of concepts, a vocabulary and an outline approach to film study which will equip them to teach film in the manner envisaged by the syllabus.

The parameters of film study in the English Syllabus

The study of film as an academic subject or as a creative art form is a vast, developing field of studies. Likewise this field is the scene of much debate about the nature of film and the most desirable approaches that should be adopted for studying it. Because of this the field of film studies within the syllabus must be focused and limited.

In general film studies can be divided into five broad areas, which although separate are not distinct and frequently overlap in discussion and analysis. These five areas are:

1. Film as an institution: commercial, production and cultural perspectives
2. Film theory: philosophical, sociological and cultural perspectives
3. Film history: the nature of its development in all its aspects
4. The aesthetics of film: as an art form, genre, structure, medium
5. The technology of film: technical and media perspectives.

Within the syllabus the emphasis will be on developing an understanding of the aesthetics of film although this will inevitably entail the other areas playing some role. Furthermore the films selected will be narrative films and for the moment must be studied in a comparative manner with literary texts. Finally because of the realities of the classroom the films will be viewed in the form of video-cassette. It is acknowledged that this is not ideal since films achieve much of their impact from the size of the screen, the quality of the sound experience and the general communal context of their viewing. Obviously where an opportunity presents itself the film should be viewed in its original form, but while this is desirable it is not to be seen as essential in the present context. (Perhaps in the future with schools having installed audio-visual rooms some of the difficulties might be counteracted.)

These tight parameters may be irritating for some but such an innovation has to take cognisance of the fact that many teachers have not been trained in approaching film and therefore need initially a secure structure to follow if they are to take up this opportunity in their teaching.

Film as aesthetic/narrative

All narrative genres share the common factor of story form. Film can be grouped under this heading with the other fictional genres and also with biography and travel writing. 8o while all these genres share a common structural core they differ in that they present their narratives in different kinds of discourse.

Discourse can be defined as a conventional structured means of communication.

The discourse of written fiction is composed of a language which communicates through using some or all o f these conventions: characters, setting, plot, descriptions, dialogue, tone, atmosphere, mood, imagery and symbols.

The discourse of drama and the theatre can select from all the discourse of fiction but in addition uses: stages, actors, sets, lighting, movement, sound, colour, costumes.

The discourse of film can use all of the elements of discourse in fiction and drama but adds something totally unique: the camera and the form of discourse that it makes possible.

This does not imply that film is the most comprehensive form of narrative discourse. Each of the narrative discourses has its own distinctive potential as a form and each can achieve effects, outcomes and modes of exploration unavailable to the others. It is to highlight the distinctive potential of each of these narrative forms that a comparative approach is being introduced.

Approaching film

Since film has so much in common with other narrative forms it is obviously a useful way to explore film initially by focusing on these elements. Likewise since teachers will be familiar with these they provide a secure structure and a sound familiar base from which to start, particularly in the context of comparative studies. These common elements are:

• Genre
• Themes
• Story/plot/action
• Characters
• Setting
• Point of view

Topics, issues and questions for consideration within each of the above:

Genre
Conventional forms of literary fiction, romance, realism, thriller, etc., are equally significant in film studies because they place the text within a tradition of story-telling, suggest an interpretative perspective and facilitate an understanding of how and why the film was made in a specific way. Again there is much disagreement among theorists about the validity of the concept of genre, since some films can be classified under a number of genres, as is apparent from the classification below. Despite this, such a classification has a definite value in providing a worthwhile educational approach.

In general terms a film genre can be described as a type of film which is characterised by certain conventions of action, setting, characters. The traditional Western tended to have some of these characteristics: Characters: Cowboys, outlaws; American Indians; Saloon girls; stranger in town; the 'loner'. Settings: Spectacular mountain or prairie landscapes; small towns; saloons; vast cattle ranches; romantic groves of trees; fast flowing rivers. Action: Violent physical events; horse chases and gun-fights; discreet love interest.

Obviously various film-makers' use o f the genre, the way they change and adapt it to suit their narrative purposes and so create meanings and interpretations, is a rich area for study and exploration.

Some film genres:

The Western: Shane; The Searchers; Dances with Wolves; Unforgiven
Science-fiction: Star Wars,. Terminator 1; Alien,. E.T.
Comedy: Mighty Aphrodite; When Harry met Sally; The Full Monty
Film-noir: The Third Man; The Big Sleep; Miller's Crossing
Disaster: Titanic; Twister; Dante's Peak
Adventure: Indiana Jones films; Spee& Die Hard,. The Fugitive
Detective/thriller: L.A Confidential; Reservoir Dogs,. Fargo,. I Went Down.
Horror: Interview with a Vampire,. Scream; Cape Feat;. Silence of the Lambs
Romance: A Room with a View,. Casablanca; Sleepless in Seattle
Biographical/life stow: Citizen Kane; Paris, Texas; Cinema Paradiso,. Shine; My Left Foot,.The Shawshank Redemption; In the Name of the Father
Social realism/critique: Secrets and Lies; Karla's Song,. 7-be Butcher Boy,. Thelma andLouise,. Witness
Historical: War: Michael Collins,. Piano,. BraveheartBorn on the Fourth of July; The Deerhunteg. The Crying Game.

Themes

The subject focus of the film; questions arising in this area would be:

• With what issues does the film deal?
• What does the film say about these issues? How can this be demonstrated?
• What values are in conflict? Is the conflict resolved? How is it resolved?
• How are these issues and values represented and portrayed in the film? e.g. Michael Collins celebrates the heroism and power of Collins and reveals the tragic pathos of civil war; Butcher Boy looks at persecution and its sad consequences; The FullMonty focuses on unemployment and personal initiative.

Story~plot~action

Within any narrative a valuable distinction can be made between story and plot.

• Story: the series of actions and events that occur in a narrative.
• Plot: the specific organisation of these events within a given narrative.

It is quite possible to use the same events of a stow and organise them in a different way, e.g. in a biographical account the events will generally be the same but it is possible to give a different order to the events by not following chronological order.

Generally in the films prescribed for this course the narratives will for the most part be relatively conventional or classical in their plot following the basic pattem of beginning, middle and end.

Another aspect of narrative in film is the manner in which the story is told. Appropriate questions here might be:

• Who is telling the stow?
• Are there one or more narrators?
• Is the narrator a character in the film or someone outside the film?
• How is the stow told? What techniques are used: actual pieces of writing (the start of Star Wars), voice-over (the start of The Third Man), flashbacks (The Pawnbroker)?

This question raises the whole context of editing in film, the art which decides on the sequence of shots, images, and scenes which will constitute the final narrative shape of the film. This will be considered in more detail later (cf.p.85).

Characters

In most novels characters are usually the focus of the action. So it is in film as well. But in the context of film there is a danger that the actor/actress playing a role becomes identified with the character portrayed, e.g. Leonardo DiCaprio is Romeo, Liam Neeson becomes Michael Collins. This is a context in which the powerful illusion of realism which film creates becomes evident; the constructed fiction becomes fact, The most useful way to assess character is through noting values, attitudes, outlook, relationships, changes and developments and observing how these are presented in terms of the film's discourses of image and sound.

Setting

Setting involves the physical~social~cultural context and the manner in which it is created and portrayed. What is selected? What is omitted? What is emphasised? What is repeatedly shown? What changes in the course of the film? Is there a relationship between characters and setting? Finally consider the 'why' of all these questions. In The Deerhunter two settings are starkly contrasted, the ritualised world of a traditional wedding and the mayhem of the Vietnam war. Likewise in Witness the bustle of urban life captured in a traffic jam is placed in stark contrast to the rhythm o f the Amish community with its horsedrawn buggy.

Point-of-view

While this occurs in texts other than films, e.g. narrative point-of-view in novels, it has a specific edge of significance within film since one is literally seeing the world created from the viewpoint taken by the camera. While most frequently films adopt an objective point-of-view, in the sense that the world is not shown from the perspective of any one character within the film this is not always the case; sometimes the point-of-view of a specific character is taken in film and it is important to be aware when this occurs. Relevant questions here might be:

• lJ~7~at way is the point of view managed in the film? Does it change? How andwhy?
• How is it determining what is seen?
• Does the point of view limit and controlyour vision in any way?
• If the point of view is that of one ofthe characters what does it reveal about thecharacter at that time? Is the character happy, angry, nervous, in love, sad?

These then are the common elements shared by all narratives. Now the specific characteristics of film narratives must be considered in some detail.

These scenes are deliberate constructs and contribute to every aspect of the film narrative, creating character, advancing the stow, suggesting interpretations, etc. In viewing films with students teachers should indicate how this is so by selecting what they consider are significant scenes and analysing them fully in themselves and in the context of the whole film. The following are general guidelines which indicate the aspects on which students' attention might be focused:

Sets and props (cf. Setting, above) Useful questions in this context:

• How does the real/natural or artificial context created relate to character, action, themes?
• Does the organisation of materials/obiects suggest any significant meanings?

Consider the impact of the following:

• The size and structure of the Empire's space ships in Star Wars
• The locked doors in As Good as it Gets
• The empty mansions of Vienna in The Third Man
• The varied house interiors in The Full Monty
• The vast prairies and isolated towns in Paris, Texas.

Does" the mise-en-sc~ne have any symbolic or iconic dimensions?
This is a more difficult question for later. Iconic perspectives enter a film when scenes are reminiscent of famous cultural images found in art, sculpture, other films, etc. For example, images ranging from Christ's Last Supper, Hitler's Nuremberg rallies, to a twoperson shoot-out on the town's main street in a Western can all bring a sub-text which enriches many films through ironic parallel and contrast.

Lighting
Brightness, shadows and darkness can carry an amount of meaning. What kind of lighting is present throughout the film and in various scenes? Whereas The Third Man is all subdued llight, A Room with a View is on the whole full of brightness with some significant contrasting moments. What does this say about the world of the film and the meanings inherent in that text?

In general terms these would be points to note: High-key lighting:.., brightly lit . . , suggest a feeling of space, of openness, of freedom Low-key lighting: . . . dim and shadowed . . , suggests eerie and ominous moods Front-lit: .... faces illuminated.., suggests openness and innocence Bottom-up/half lit: . . . suggests threat and deviousness.

Quite clearly all the resources of lighting, while being powerful ways of narrating a stow, raising an audience's interest and keeping its attention, can also have strong symbolic resonances. They can be used to create a specific interpretation of an experience or of a character or portray a definite interpretation of the world. For example in The Star WarsTrilogy, the world of the Empire is seen in hard, metallic lighting .or in shadowy terms; in contrast the world of Princess Liea, Luke Skywalker et al. is bright and open.

Colour
Similar to lighting in its use; it helps to reveal character and relationships, create moods and atmosphere, emphasise tensions and reveal rich symbolic perspectives.

Bright colours suggest a sense of openness and confidence; on the other hand they could also be employed to suggest the artificial and the superficial. Dark colours can suggest a sense of threat and foreboding, a sense of sadness and loss. As with all order to achieve emphasis. Likewise, fast film speed is the constant source of comic effects. What other effects could it achieve?

Frame
This refers to the manner in which the screen frames/shapes/organises the camera's field of vision; how within the frame of the screen the camera presents its view of the miseen-sc~ne. Whereas a wide frame is more suitable for westerns and epics a tighter frame is better for love-stories and various kinds of melodrama, e.g. thrillers and horror. The kind of questions that are useful for exploring this area are as follows:

• At what angle does the frame show the scene? High (viewing from above); Low (viewing from below); Normal (viewing at eye-height); Canted (viewing from an unusual angle)
• What kind of distance does the frame keep from its subject? Does the subject fill the whole screen? How is the frame arranged around the subject?
• Is the frame organised to achieve certain effects? What is given emphasis? What is in the foreground, in the background? In what kind of perspective are the elements in the scene presented?

Sound
The domain of sound within a film can be categorised under three headings:

• Human voices: monologues, dialogues, voice-overs, overheard conversations, etc.
• Noises of all kinds: natural sounds of nature, sounds of people or machines
• Music: dramatic possibilities for creating mood and tension.

As emphasised earlier, film is a combination of image and sound. While viewing a film we may or may not be conscious of the musical accompaniment of many scenes . . , but nevertheless it is working powerfully within our experience by setting a mood, building up anticipation, generating excitement and creating emotional contexts. Most people will be aware of the musical cliches that signal the villain waiting to pounce, the rescue craft arriving, the monster arising from the depths, or the entrance of the powerful ruler. But music can be used much more subtly than this. Music contributes significantly to the rhythm of a film, to the sense of movement within the film, and also to its narrative pace and shape. In Dances with Wolves the visual excitement of the buffalo hunt is given added intensity by the pounding musical score which accompanies it. Consider such possibilities as: music facilitating transitions from one scene to another; musical motifs related to different characters and locations; the significance of the theme-music and its presence or absence in scenes.

Likewise with other sounds: think of the possible dramatic impact of a sudden scream, the wild sounds of a storm, the gentle lapping of waves on a beach, the cry of a sea-bird. As with music, sound motifs can be associated with certain characters and places and add to the dramatic effects of a scene. In Star Wars the laboured breathing of Darth Vader comes over as a threat; in Hitchcock's The Birds any sound associated with a bird becomes an occasion of terror; finally the absence of sound, the sound of silence, can also be used to achieve powerful effects.

Editing
The editor's role is to take all the film that has been shot and by judicious selection construct sequences that build into scenes/episodes and finally link all the episodes into a sustained narrative. Deciding on what shots to include and in what sequence to put them in to create the most powerful impact in terms of feeling and sto W line is a vital part of creating a successful film. The linking of scenes by an editor is frequently described by the term montage. This is a way of showing, rather than telling an audience what is happening. Through skilful editing a montage can manipulate an audience into seeing the world from a particular viewpoint. For example, consider this sequence of shots/images in Weir's Witness.

• A horse-drawn buggy being driven by two bearded, darkly dressed Amish farmers
• Close-up of the farmers' faces
• Camera pulis back and the buggy is shown holding up a line of cars
• Long shot of buggy being crowded by an articulated truck
• Final shot shows buggy waiting at traffic light while traffic swirls about it.

This montage clearly underlines the major theme of the film, the contrast between the values of traditional Amish culture and those of contemporary civilisation.

Many who go to films are quite unaware of editing; the film seems to move in a seamless series of images and the continuity is not disrupted in any obvious way. This continuity editing, symptomatic of many classical films, involves most sophisticated skills which are essential to making the narrative flow easily. Typical techniques would be:

• Using establ~hing shots., to start a scene or sequence; these shots create a sense of location, focusing on a town, a landscape, outer space or a specific context of action.
• Using shot~reverse shot to capture the encounter between two people or a person and an object, focusing on one initially and then cutting to the other and so to and fro between them as the encounter develops.
• Using different modes o f transitions (cuts) between shots and scenes.
  • Fade-in or fade - out : an image is darkened or lightened so that it disappears.
  • Iris-in or Iris-out: a new image appears as a growing circle in the middle of the old image or the old image shrinks and disappears into the new image.
  • Wipe: a line moves across an image to clear one shot and introduce another.
  • Dissolve: a new shot is briefly superimposed on a fading old shot.

As with all aspects of films these techniques need to be critically examined to discover why they were used and what effect they actually achieve. Relevant issues here would be:

• Pace and rhythm of the narrative: by a judicious selection of shots and cuts the editor can create a specific mood or atmosphere. Quick cutting and short, tightly focused shots can create intense excitement and a sense of tension, e.g. car chases, etc. On the other hand slow, lingering shots focused on details such as shoes, eyes, weapons, hands, door handles, can also create tension.
• In establishing shots is any statement made about the world and the characters in it?Are characters at home in this world or are they at a loss? Is the location benign or threatening? How is the feeling created?
• Is the continuity of the narrative always smooth or is it disrupted by unusual shots or cuts? Why is this done . . . to create a sense of unease, to make a comment on a character o r event, to remind the audience of something?
• What kind of shots are dominant in the film? Why is this? What effect does this choice of shots achieve?

Theme music:
The Harry Lyme theme. A haunting tune, played on the zither, reminiscent of fairgrounds and barrel organs. It creates moods of pathos, nostalgia and of threat depending on how it is played at various moments in the film.

Approaching film in the classroom

Because of the association between film and entertainment students can adopt a certain attitude to the viewing of film which can militate against worthwhile discussion and analysis taking place subsequently. To avoid such outcomes the viewing of a film should be guided by some basic methodological practices:

Previewing.. Place film in context of either its social and cultural setting, or its main themes, or its genre. The comparative perspective and prescribed modes of comparison within the syllabus facilitates this.

Viewing: In an ideal world the film would be seen initially by the students in its totality so that they could experience its overall imaginative impact and become involved in its atmosphere and narrative tensions. Alternatively the film will have to be viewed as a series of episodes, perhaps on two or three consecutive days which can be fitted into the available class time. After this initial encounter and resultant general discussion a more focused, specific approach should be taken.

Select a series of short significant episodes which will fit into the class time available and essentially focus the study of the film on these episodes. This may mean (approx.) 1015 mins. viewing time followed by 20-25 mins time for discussion and analysis. In relation to The ThirdMan perhaps the following episodes might be selected for detailed study:

Holly's arrival and opening scene in the cemetery
First meeting between Holly and Harry (the cat scene)
Meeting in the fairground
Meeting in the cafe
Chase in the sewers
Final scene in the cemetery.

2 Each episode should be viewed with some specific purposes in mind. Ask the students to watch out for specific things or to seek the answers to set questions, e.g. how characters are presented and viewed, costumes and props, the use of light and shadow, certain camera angles, sound sequences, etc.

3 After each episode discuss the developments that have taken place and ask for observations on how the narrative has been developed in relation to characters, relationships, and overall narrative flow. Focus on particular moments of the film. If thought appropriate a particular shot/image could be chosen for exemplary analysis.

4 The personal journal could obviously be employed usefully in this context for students to record their developing understanding or otherwise of what the film is attempting to do. In the journal jottings about all aspects of the film should be present.

5 Ideally the study of the film should be rounded off with the students seeing the film as a whole.

Post-viewing: Consider film under the topics and headings outlined above and relate to other films and texts.