This section of the draft guidelines presents a wide range of teaching and learning methodologies, the rationale for each, and some guidelines on their use in class.
3.1 Concept Formation and Case Study
3.2 Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Exercises
3.3 Simulation Games and Role Play
3.4 Modelling
3.5 Presentation and Interpretation of Data
3.6 Self-Assessment Activities
3.7 Discussion
3.8 Group Work
3.9 Activity Based Learning
SUMMARY
Stories/accounts/texts are presented to students who analyse the main components and processes to initiate consideration of an issue or raise awareness of the different aspects of a concept.
PROCEDURE
- Present examples using different forms of expression.
- Differentiate the specific objects or events in each example and identify the critical attributes.
- Identify the common properties in the examples.
- Label the concept.
- Obtain further examples of the concept using different forms of expression.
Literary Expression: Writing poems/songs/stories can be creative and energising. These methods can be used for evaluation, for exploring hopes and dreams, or for creative
expression. Stories can be worked through in groups and a variety of possible endings suggested for different scenarios.
Dramatic Expression: Drama/mime/dance can be introduced to groups in short exercises, such as body sculpture (where members adopt a pose to express their understanding of a reading, feeling or attitude). Try exercise routines to music. These methods shift the energy within a group and can be useful in breaking down barriers and boundaries that limit the group's cohesion or development.
Visual Expression
- Drawing releases creativity and allows students to express themselves other than in words. Ask students to describe their drawings to other group members. Use this to
explore hopes, expectations, fears, present situation, fantasies and evaluation. - Photo Speak using a collection of photographs from which students can pick an image which for them represents a concept etc.
- Collages made out of magazines and newspapers, which represent students' images, can facilitate personal and group exploration or evaluation.
- Graffiti boards are blank sheets of paper, card or board on which students can write comments on group issues. These can be useful to allow students to express themselves in a concise way. They can use cartoons or drawings or words which when brought back into the larger group can generate discussion.
- Quilts are collective or individual visual representations of events, feelings or stories made up from materials, sewing stitches and sometimes patches of cloth. Paper
can also be used. Students can come together to create a quilt using the time to discuss, analyse and share experiences while being creative and active.
SUMMARY
Individuals or groups of students are given an exercise in which decisions are required.
The elements are analysed to give students practice in recognising the need for decisions and in analysing alternatives in the light of moral or religious principles.
PROCEDURE
- Presentation of problem (incorporate situations real to the students) The problem presented should be
- focused on the purpose of the lesson
- suitable and of interest for the students' age group. - Definition and analysis of the problem
- Distinguish the essential features of the problem.
- Discuss questions, which allow the students to restate the problem and identify the general issues in the particular problem. - Formulation of hypothesis which may be applicable to a solution
- Formulate, discuss and record a number of possible solutions to the problem and the implications of the solutions for those involved.
- Give consideration to moral or religious perspectives on the problem. - Selection and application of hypothesis
- Each possible solution is given imaginative and comprehensive consideration in terms of its aims, consequences and alternatives.
SUMMARY
Simulation exercises are where people complete a task and then discuss how they did it, how they worked, what went well, what they need to improve. Role-play is where people act out a situation in a way which can broaden perspectives and deepen understanding.
PROCEDURE
- Introduction
- Evoke a willingness to participate from the students.
- Introduce the simulation/role-play to the whole class.
- Divide students into smaller groups if required and distribute instructions or role cards.
- Explain rules and patterns of play.
- Set tasks for observers. - Role-play
- Engage students in the simulation.
- Keep the simulation moving and introduce refinements where appropriate.
- Stop the simulation at the moment of resolution, or when the time runs out, or the students' interest declines. - De-briefing
- Bridge from activity to de-briefing.
- Encourage students to articulate their individual response to the experience and to critically reflect upon it. The students' skills of thinking and behaving are analysed in discussion with a view to extracting principles from the simulation or role-play.
- Note comments from observers. - Conclusion
- Summarise, generalise.
- Conclude, relate to unit of work.
USING SIMULATION GAMES AND ROLE PLAY
Simulation exercises are where people complete a task and then discuss how they did it, how they worked, what went well and what they need to improve. The purpose of simulation
is to have a common group experience, which is then analysed according to aims of the lesson. The teacher's role is to design, direct and de-brief the simulation. An 'observer'
may be used to provide an objective perspective on what happened in the simulation. Observers must be clear that this is not an opportunity to criticise. They should know what to look for in the simulation and how to present it in feedback.
Role-play is where people act out a situation in a way which can broaden perspectives and deepen understanding. Students take on roles based on real life situations in
which personal skills can be tested and developed. Scripts and role cards are useful in supporting this method. When the 'drama' is over, the main person in the role-play hears how effective s/he is from the other 'actors'. The role-play can be performed again incorporating role-reversal where the actors take on the role of another person in a chosen scenario. This helps the actors to experience an event or issue from another perspective similar or different to their own.
Icebreakers can be used to energise a group or to develop a relaxed atmosphere in the class. They can also enhance listening and communication skills.
Drama and sketches are powerful tools of learning, change and expression. Within all group settings, drama and sketches can be used to explore and then express any
insights or new understandings reached.
USEFUL TIPS FOR USING THESE METHODOLOGIES
- Using role cards can keep the students engaged with the task.
- Don't allow enactments to go on too long, dry up or degenerate into stereotype.
- Freezing the action in a role play can allow students to be questioned about their thoughts or actions.
- The most important part of a learning experience created using simulation games or role play happens when the acting is over.
- Always plan for plenty of class time after the simulation game or role play.
SUMMARY
Students examine a credible living example of someone who demonstrates the skills or dispositions under consideration. The most effective models are the same age and gender, and are seen as similar to the learners. Interviews can be used to help a group to focus on the essential elements of a subject or situation.
PROCEDURE
- Introduction
- Identify what the students need to know from the visitor/interview.
- Brief visiting speaker as to what is expected of them.
- Formulate precise questions which students can put to the speaker. - Interview/Demonstration
- Questioning
- Determine which questions take precedence and who is to ask them
- one student asking only one question. - Conclusion
- Students recall their expectations of the interview/demonstration.
- Students identify what the interview confirmed for them about a topic or issue.
- Students identify the ways in which the interview gave them a new insight into a topic or issue.
SUMMARY
Students are presented with new information which they analyse from the perspective of previously learned concepts or an exploratory question, to come to an understanding of the relationships involved. They formulate conclusions or further questions based on the outcomes of the lesson.
PROCEDURE
- Presentation of data
- Written data pre-suppose a certain literacy level among the students.
- Visual data can be used to tell personal and group histories. Slides or photographs provide information about other people or situations. Videos and films stimulate, inform and entertain. They should not be too long as anything over thirty minutes will
challenge concentration.
- The data being presented should contain one important idea or fact
- Divide textbook passage into relevant sections so that students can identify the main points. - Identification of specific points in the data
- What? Who? Why? How? When?
- Ask questions which elicit untested assumptions.
- Ask questions which allow students to interpret the data in the light of previously learned concepts.
- Use written texts as a jumping off point for further explanation or illustration. - Identifying relationships
- Relate points to each other.
- Ask questions designed to facilitate the relating of different points. - Formulation of generalisations or inferences
- Go beyond what is given by finding the implications.
SUMMARY
Students engage in activities designed to record, structure and elaborate their existing knowledge and their own strengths and weaknesses as learners. Brainstorming is a quick listing of first thoughts and reactions to an idea. This is useful at the beginning of a session to initiate thoughts to be worked out more fully as the lesson develops. It can be used to generate information, enabling a wide range of ideas to be expressed for later development.
PROCEDURE
- Introduce exercise/activity explaining the objectives of the lesson.
- Each student contributes a thought/idea related to the topic with an emphasis on brevity and proceeding in a quick-fire order. - Record responses without comment or discussion.
- Encourage spontaneity.
- All contributions are accepted uncritically and recorded. - Collect data/compile summary.
- The data may be refined by eliminating duplications or errors.
- The group may put their responses in order by grouping ideas into categories. - Draw conclusions in relation to the objectives of the lesson.
- Identify and discuss the issues raised by the students' responses in the light of the stated outcomes of the lesson.
SUMMARY
Discussion is usually situated within a wider learning context as it requires students to be familiar with the content relevant to the topic being discussed, and aware of the aims of the discussion.
PROCEDURE
- Presentation of material for discussion
- Set the climate for discussion.
- Identify the aims of the discussion.
- Present material for discussion which is of interest to the students, focused on the purpose of the lesson and suitable for the age group.
- Clarify the meaning of key terms in the topic for discussion to ensure a common basis of understanding. - Questioning
- Systematically go through the points for discussion giving each student an opportunity to articulate his/her personal stance.
- Avoid making substantial contributions but guide the discussion by asking the following types of questions:
- fact questions - asking students for previously learned information, or to recount a specified aspect of their previous experience
- meaning questions - asking students to demonstrate understanding of concepts, to give explanations etc.
- concretising questions - asking students to relate the material under discussion to their own experience or the experience of others
- balance questions - asking students to explore their differences
- open questions - asking students to answer from the background of their personal experience and ideas, with the nature of links between students' ideas and the theme of the lesson being left open for the students to decide. - Conclusion
- Plenary sessions are when the full class hears what went on in smaller groups. Each small group has a reporter and recorder who outline the conclusions of the group.
- The teacher draws the discussion to a close by summarising the flow of the discussion and the key issues raised in the light of the aims of the discussion and the sequence of learning. Students are encouraged to adopt an informed personal stance as a result of the discussion, or to raise further questions.
USING DISCUSSION
Group Discussion
Small group discussion is useful for further exploration of identified issues, practical decision-making, action-planning or full discussion by a small number of people. Small groups give everyone a break from the large group and help to generate discussion and stimulate participation.
Guidelines
- Decide on an issue and agree very specific discussion questions.
- Set the time limit.
- Assign a reporter to each group.
- Encourage people to respect one another and to stay with the topic.
Large group discussions are useful for holding general discussion, reporting-back, airing views, giving information, seeking proposals, agreeing plans, generating energy, building trust and exploring expectations/hopes.
Guidelines
- Encourage maximum participation by making sure everyone has an opportunity to contribute.
- Do not spend too much time in this formation, as attention spans are short in this setting.
Techniques for assigning people to groups
Working in pairs is useful for in-depth work, for personal exploration and for self-analysis. Assign people to small groups by calling letters, numbers, fruits or animals. Ask the same letters (numbers, fruits, or animals) to work together. So if you want three groups, call As, Bs and Cs (or Apples, Oranges and Pears). All As work together etc.
Fish bowl is a seating arrangement where half the group sit in a circle and works together on something. The other half sit outside this circle, they are non-participants merely observing the inner circle. The fish bowl is useful for listening, resolving conflict, discussion, observation and supervision exercises. This method is best introduced when the group has experience of other forms of group work.
Debates are a series of formal spoken arguments for and against a definite proposal. This method can be useful for developing skills of analysis, critical awareness and appreciation of differing points of view.
Buzz Groups. The teacher sets a question or topic for discussion. Students collect theirthoughts on this topic and make brief notes. Students exchange in pairs and then in small groups their views on the topic and seek consensus. One of the groups makes a brief report to the rest of the class. This method can be used to warm up a group, collect information or encourage participation by developing contact.
SUMMARY
The teacher's role is to organise the lesson or sequence of lessons so that effective work takes place in the groups. Students are presented with materials for group work, clear instructions for undertaking the work and a set of expected outcomes. Upon completion of the group work the students engage in a concluding activity which relates the work they have been doing to the aim of the lesson.
PROCEDURE
- Presentation of data for group work
- Provide a concrete statement of the task.
- Set the group work in context within a unit of work.
- Clarify the nature and objectives of the group work.
- Provide relevant material/resources. - Preparation for group work
- Brief students on what is needed for the group work.
- Divide the class into small groups of 4-6 students.
- Make sure that each group understands the relationship of its individual contribution to the overall project or unit of work.
- Organise leadership, record keeping etc.
- Set time limits and make arrangements for clearing up afterwards.
- Ensure that the allocation of workspace/accommodation is satisfactory. - Group work
- Teachers should co-ordinate the activity of the whole class and maintain contact with groups. - Feedback from the group work and concluding activity
- Presentation of group reports.
- Order and summarise reports.
- Question students regarding similarities/differences between group reports.
- Relate activity of individual groups to the overall project and unit of work.
SUMMARY
Active learning methods ensure that students are not simply passive recipients of information and give a greater significance to the learning because it arises out of the students own experience, ideas and behaviour. Active learning methods promote responsibility, respect, skills training, and the enhancement of self-esteem. The teacher is responsible for designing, planning and structuring the experiential learning elements.
PROCEDURE
- Preparation
- Clarify the aim of the activity.
- Set up core team.
- Conduct brainstorming session as regards the design of the activity.
- Design timetable for the activity and make practical arrangements.
- Conduct training sessions. - Experience
- The students have to be participants rather than observers in the experience in order to generate the reactions needed to resource the next phase of the process. - Reflection
- Sharing, analysis and evaluation of reactions to the experience. - Conclusion
- Generalisations are extracted from the sharing, discussion and principles developed.
- These are then related to the aim of the lesson or series of lessons.